
AND Section-Master's Guide. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

@]^jt ©Bjnjrir^W 'Oa.. 

Shelf. . K 54 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



The Road-Master's Assistant. 



THE 



Road -MASTER'S Assistant 



AND 



SECTION-MASTER'S GUIDE : 



A MANUAL OF REFERENCE FOR ALL HAVING TO DO WITH THE 

PERMANENT WAY OF AMERICAN RAILROADS ; CONTAINING 

THE BEST RESULTS OF EXPERIENCE AND MINUTE 

DIRECTIONS FOR TRACK- LAYING, BALLASTING, 

AND KEEPING THE TRACK IN GOOD 

REPAIR. 



^^ WILLIAM S. HUKTIHaTOIT. 

REVISED AND ENLARGED BY 

CHARLES LATIMER, 

CHIEF ENGINEER ATLANTIC & GREAT WESTERN KAILROAD. 




published by 
The Railroad Gazette, No. 73 Broadway, New York, 

1878. 



^ 







Copyright, 1877, 

BY 

THE RAILROAD GAZETTE. 



H. J. HEWITT, PRINTERi 27 ROSE STREET, NEW YORK. 



% 




* 



PREFACE. 



The object in offering this little volume to the rail- 
road public is to correct, as far as possible, certain erro- 
neous practices into which track-layers and section-men 
have fallen, which practices are fatal to the life of track 
and rolling stock. 

With the introduction of the '' T " rail in this country 
a certain method of laying track was adopted, and, 
with few exceptions, has been adhered to until the 
present day, and so with track repairs. It may be said 
that track-men " fell into a groove " thirty years ago, 
and are still following it, to the great detriment of rail- 
road shareholders and of the pubHc at large. 

The enormous expense of track repairs and the lia- 
bility to accident may be greatly reduced by a reform 
in the every-day practice of the track-layer and section- 
master ; and the manner in which this may be accom- 
plished is set forth in this work as clearly and briefly as 
possible. It would not be a difficult matter to fill a 
volume of several times the size of this on the subjects 
herein embraced, but the author believes that the infor- 
mation here given will be more acceptable in its present 
form — " in a nut-shell " — than if occupying unnecessary 
space for the purpose of making a di^ book. It is not 
forgotten that several books have been published, bear- 



111 



IV PREFACE. 

ing on the same topics ; but they are mainly of a tech- 
nical nature, and not adapted to the wants or capacities 
of the average track-man^ and are of little value to other 
than professional engineers. 

The author has undertaken to make this a practical 
book for practical moi^ and the ideas herein presented 
are the result of upward of a quarter of a century's ex- 
perience and extended observation in various capaci- 
ties, on some of the best as well as some of the worst 
managed railroads in the country. 

It is not designed to '* upset " any well-established 
theory^ nor is it expected to introduce ideas entirely 
new to every one who may read these pages; but it is 
confidently hoped that the great mass of track-men will 
here find suggestions that will be valuable to them, and 
far more so to their employers. 

The author has, in the course of his experience, de- 
monstrated the truth of all the statements made herein 
by actual experiment and practice, and may, therefore, 
commend them to his readers as more valuable than 
conclusions which are only ^* jumped at/' or opinions 
formed without mature consideration. 

W. S. H. 

Byron, Mich., April, iSjn 



PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. 



-O-*- 



To Mr. W. S. Huntington, a practical track- 
man, and a man of very keen perceptive facul- 
ties and sound, decided common sense, is due 
the credit of first presenting to the railroad fra- 
ternity a practical work upon track repairs, of 
which the present volume is the final outgrowth ; 
and the owners and operators of railroads owe 
him a debt of gratitude at least for having raised 
the standard of railroad construction and repairs 
throughout the country. The invention or in- 
itiation of a system is the principal point ; any 
one may follow him who is the pioneer, but all 
may not do better or as well. But railroading 
is a branch of one great work which is develop- 
ing more rapidly than anything else, and it is al- 
most as hard to keep up with it as to keep pace 
with the geography of our country and the popu- 
lation of its towns. 

I do not pretend to have completely filled the 
gap where Mr. Huntington, left off, but simply, 



VI PREFACE. 

at the solicitation of others, who did me the 
honor to ask me to revise and add to the work 
of my fellow-laborer Huntington, I have at 
leisure hours supplied, as I hope, some of the 
desiderata. 

One of the most important things for me to 
do was to make the book general — that is, to 
apply to nearly all of the various gauges of the 
country. To this end I have prepared tables 
for the elevation of curves for the four gauges 
in most common use, also frog and switch 
tables for the same, with bills of timber, etc, as 
well as methods for putting in crossings and 
cross-over tracks. I have given more especial 
descriptions of the better kinds of switches, 
switch-stands, and ordinary and crossing frogs. 
I have selected the best systems of rules for the 
government of the track department from two 
roads. One set I prepared myself, with the 
advice and assistance of all the ability upon the 
road for which they were intended, and with 
the original rules as a ground-work. The other 
set was taken from a road where the able en- 
gineer followed the same plan, and selected from 
my rules as well as others the best he could 
find, producing a more comprehensive sj^stem 
than my own. 

The '' specification for a perfect track '' of the 
Pennsylvania Railroad is a valuable guide, and 
is also given to show the experience and teach- 



PREFACE. VU 

ing of other earnest and zealous workers in this 
direction. These three will enable the organizer 
of any road to select the fittest for his use. 

A special chapter is devoted to the subject of 
elevation on curves — a subject so much neglect- 
ed, and yet one of the most vital to the safety, 
economy, and comfort of a road. A very excel- 
lent method for curving rails with a track-lever 
is also given, which I can heartily recommend. 
A special chapter has also been devoted to the 
question of the disadvantages of level cross- 
ings, which to some, perhaps, may seem irrele- 
vant, but to others differently situated probably 
less so. 

A variety of engravings has been introduced, 
illustrating the best patterns of rails, joints, 
frogs, and switches ; also the best selections of 
track-tools, some of which are novel, yet proven. 
Others, however, of equal, and perhaps in some 
cases greater, merit have been reluctantly 
omitted. It is not to be understood that I 
commend those given as wholly superior to 
others. 

In the preparation of this new edition I have 
utilized the brains of my friends whose names 
appear, and of some that do not appear, whose 
reward, like my own, is not so much expected 
in material form as in the hope of forwarding 
the cause of sound railroad practice. All have 
my warm thanks, as I am sure they will also 



VIll PREFACE. 

have the reader's and student's ; and I trust 
that some of them may be moved to take up the 
work where I cease, fill up the gaps left by my 
friend Huntington, to say nothing of my own, 
and present a more perfect work ; at which 
none will more rejoice or be more ready to con- 
tribute than myself. 

Charles Latimer, 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

TS.ACK-LAYING. 

PAGE 

Careless Work — Usual Defects and their Consequences — Choice 
of Cross-Ties ; Should be of Uniform Size— How to Lay Them, 

and How Not to Lay Them Side Ties— " Sighting in Ties" 

— Measuring off for Joint-Ties — Laying Ties on Bridges, etc. — 
The use of Shims— Selection of Ties for Joints — Preparation of 
Road-Bed — Instructions for Track-laying — Use of Compass, 
Level, and Square — Gang for Laying Track at the Rate of 
Half a Mile a Day — Tools for such a Gang, .... I 

CHAPTER II. 

LAYING THE RAILS. 

Damages by Rough Handling — Curving Iron — Cocked Joints, and 
How to Remedy Them — Expansion of Iron — Usual Provision 
against it — Caution Necessary in Replacing Repaired Rails — 
Hoop-iron Shims — Suspension-Joints — Creeping Track — Num- 
ber and Tons of Rails per Mile, i8 

CHAPTER IIL 

ABOUT SPIKES. 

Wasteful Handling — Driving Spikes — How they are Spoiled — 
The Right Method — The Gauge : Its Misuse — Oscillation of 
Railroad Cars : Bad Spiking One Cause — Other Causes — Spik- 
.ing on Bridges — Waste of Rail-Plates, 26 



X CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER IV. 

CATTLE-GUARDS, CULVERTS, AND TURN-OUTS. 

PAGE 
Cattle-Guards often Mere Traps— Their Proper Construction- 
Laying Iron over Cattle-Guards, Culverts, and Road-Crossings— 
Laying Turn-Uuts— Locating Frogs— Tables for Putting in 
Frogs and Switches— Curving Iron Guard-Rails— Measuring 
Distances by the Hammer— Adjustment of Guard-Rails— Tie- 
Rods— A Few Words on Home and Foreign Roads, . . . 34 

CHAPTER V. 

ON BALLASTING TRACK. 

Best Ballast — Dumping Gravel : It should never be done till Road- 
Bed is Ready — Boulders, Roots, etc., should not be carted with 
Gravel — Raising Track — Tamping — Dressing off Track — What 
to do when Material is Scarce — Sags, . . . , , .44 

CHAPTER VI. 

ELEVATION OF CURVES. 

Subject of Elevation of the Outer Rail little understood — Impor- 
tant to determine the Rate of Speed for which the Elevation 
should be calculated — No Invariable Rule can be Adopted — De- 
gree of Curves, 54 

CHAPTER VH. 

TRACK REPAIRS. 

Methods Unchanged for a Quarter of a Century — Routine Ideas — 
Cheap Section-Masters not desirable— Work on a New Road — 
Joint-Ties— Lining Track : in Frosty Localities — Clearing out 
Ditchesand Culverts : their proper Dimensions — Kinks in Rails 
— Importance of True Gauge — Trestle v/ork and Bridges should 
be Planked for Foot Passengers, 60 



CONTENTS, XI 

CHAPTER VIII. 

DRAWING SPIKES — SHIMMING. 

PAGE 
Waste in Spike-drawing — Claw-Bars — The Bull's-Foot — Spike- 
drawing in Winter — Loss by Carelessness — Shimming : its ad- 
vantages — Often Badly Done — Shims often ill-made and of Bad 
Material — Consequences — Shimming in Frosty Weather — How 
to Manage It — Tamping — Thick Shims should be Spiked to 
Ties — Machine-made Shims — Shimming under Ties, or upon 
Culverts, Trestle-Work, etc. — What comes of Shims Working 
Out— Planks at Road-Crossings — Wood-Piles, . . . .71 

CHAPTER IX. 

FROGS AND SWITCHES. 

Selection of Frogs and S\vitches — Crossing- Frogs — Bent Switch- 
Rods — The Throw of Switches — Connecting- Rods — Frogs : Cast- 
steel Plate and Rail Frogs — Fastening Guard-Rails — Short 
Guard-Rails — Useless Tinkering, *. 81 

CHAPTER X. 

PATTERNS OF RAILS — JOINTS. 

Diagrams of Rails most in Use — Mode of Building a Pile for Roll- 
ing Rail — Weight of Rails to be in Proportion to Tonnage — 
Joints — Engravings of Joint-Fastenings — Nut-Locks, . . 91 

CHAPTER XI. 

RENEWING TIES— SHIFTING IRON. 

The Work not so Simple as it Looks — Needs to be done Intelli- 
gently — Difference of Ties — How Track is Affected by Changing 
Ties— Uses for Old Ties — Shifting Iron— When Ends are 
Broomed — Step-Chairs for Laying Repaired Iron — Adjusting 
Repaired Rails — Spike-drawing — Preserving the Gauge — Un- 
curved Iron for Curves,. 97 



Xll CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XII. 

SNOW AND ICE. 

PAGE 
Snow-Ploughs Insufficient — Jealousy of Master-Mechanics a Hin- 
drance to their Improvement— Other Reasons — Clearing the 
Flange-Way — Some Methods of Doing This, .... 107 

CHAPTER XIIL 

ON FIRE AND WATER AS ENEMIES — ALSO ON PRESERVING FENCES. 

Washing Away of Embankments — Instance of Neglect and its 
Consequences — Vigilance Needed at the Season of Freshets — 
Duty of Section-Masters — Power of Water Not Fully Realized 
by Section-Men — Action of Water in Deep Cuttings — Surface 
Ditches — Hand-Car Practice — Fires : Burning Waste ; Bridge- 
Burning and its Causes — Breaks in Fences may be Hidden by 
Weeds — Falling Trees — Danger of Leaving Fences Broken — 
Tool-Houses, 112 

CHAPTER XIV. 

ON RAILROAD ACCIDENTS. 

Preventable and Non-preventable Accidents — Illustrated News- 
paper Critics — A Word to Newspaper Men — What Accidents 
May be Classed as Unavoidable — Collisions : From Breaking of 
Car-Couplings ; From Misunderstanding by Train-Men ; Be- 
tween Gravel and Passenger Trains — Cheap and Ignorant Labor 
— Prompt Use of Lights — Narrative of a Collision — Broken 
(Usually Cheap) Axles — Cracked Wheels— Broken Rails— Who 
is Blameworthy — Misplaced Switches —False Economy — The 
Speed Recorder, 120 

CHAPTER XV. 

RAILROAD AND HIGHWAY CROSSINGS. 

Railroad- Crossings— Abolition of Grade-Crossings advocated — 
Safety and Economy equally deniand it — Estimate of the Cost 
of Stops to a Main Trunk Line at a Grade-Crossing— Irritating 



CONTENTS. XIU 

PAGE 

Action of the Great Corporations when Lesser Lines are Pro- 
jected — Defective Legislation — Outlines of Laws to Check the 
Evil — Crossings Above or Below proposed — Conditions for 
Crossing at Grade when Unavoidable — Watchfulness at High- 
way Crossings especially Enjoined, . , , , , , 134 

CHAPTER XVI. 

A V70RD TO SUPERINTENDENTS AND ROAD-MASTERS. 

Inexperienced Superintendents apt to Appoint Inefficient Road- 
Masters — Road-Masters need a Practical Knowledge of Details 
in Repairs — Their Duties often too Multifarious — Section-Mas- 
ters need Minute Instructions — Riding in *' Palace Cars " — Road- 
Masters as Likely to Injure the Road by Zeal for Economy as 
by Extravagance — The Engineer should Discuss Questions with 
His Road-Masters, . ^ c . . . . r . 142 

CHAPTER XVIL 

ORGANIZATION. 

Bankruptcy the Result of a Lack of Fundamental Order — Discharge 
of the Engineer before the Entire Completion of the Road 
a Fatal Mistake — Incompetent Superintendents — Harmony be- 
tween the Engineer and Superintendent necessary to the Pros- 
perity of a Road — No " Supervisor " to come between the Chief- 
Engineer and the Road-Masters — Foremen to Work with their 
Men — Engineers should Instruct their Assistants,. , . . 147 

CHAPTER XVIIL 

trackmen's TOOLS. 

Variety of Track Tools — Different Weights — Description of Some 
of the Tools Illustrated— The Cord- CI amp— Track Gauge and 
Level Combined — Rail -Saw — Track-Jack — List of Tools Re- 
quired by Track-Gang — Illustrations of Ratchet Screw-jack, 
Track-Level, various Hand Tools, Rail-Bender or Jim Crow, 
Ratchet Wrench and Drill, Joyce's Track-Jack, Lakey's Track 
Drill, ...,-. 155 



XIV CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XIX 

RULES AND TABLES. 

PAGE 
Curving Rails v/ith Lever and Curving Hook — Method of Finding 
approximately the Degree of Curvature required to Reach any- 
Desired Object, Point of Curve being Known — Practical Method 
of Finding Proportion of Frog — Rules for Placing Frogs in 
Cross-over Track when the two Tracks are Straight and Parallel 
— Tables for Elevation of Outer Rail on Curves — Table for De- 
termining Degree of Curvature and Elevation of Outer Rail by 
Versed Sine of 43-ft. Chords — Bills for Frog and Switch Tim- 
bers, 162 



APPENDIX I. 



Rules for the Government of Track and Bridge Repairers, adopted 
for the Atlantic & Great Western Railroad, including *' Gene- 
ral Instructions to be followed in the Maintenance of Track " and 
*' Instructions for Track-laying," 187 



APPENDIX II. 

Rules and Instructions for the Government of Trackmen on the 
Louisville & Nashville and South & North Alabama Rail- 
roads, with Tables foi Putting in Frogs and Switches, and 
Bills of Switch Timbers for the 5-ft. Gauge, . . . .207 



APPENDIX III. 

Specifications for a Perfect Sub-Division on the Pennsylvania 
Railroad, 249 



APPENDIX IV. 
The French Metric System, 254 



CONTENTS, XV 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Steel-rail Frog — Switch-Stand — Semaphore Signal — Steel rail Frog- 
Crossing — Malleable Iron Head Chair — Sections of Rail and Rail- 
Joints used on the Atlantic & Great Western, the Pittsburgh, Cin- 
cinnati & St. Louis, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Pennsylvania, the 
Erie, and the Louisville & Nashville Railroads — Ground Switch 
Lever Stand— Ordinary Fish-Plate — The Fisher Joint— Double Joint, 
Atlantic & Great Western Railroad— Latimer's Safety-Guard for 
Trains — Reinforced Joint used on Pennsylvania Railroad — Linden- 
thal's Suspended Rail-Joint — Cumming's Crossing — Cumming^s Frog 
— Mansfield Elastic Frog — Morden's T-Rail Crossing — Morden's T- 
Rail Line Frog — Brahn's Main-Line Spring Frog — Brahn's Detach- 
able Steel-rail Frog; 



The Road-Master's Assistant. 



CHAPTER I. 
TRACK-LAYING. 



Careless Work — Usual Defects and their Consequen- 
ces — Choice of Cross-ties ; Should be of Uniform Size 
— How to Lay Them, and How Not to Lay Them— Side 
Ties — *' Sighting in Ties " — Measuring Off for Joint 
Ties — Laying Ties on Bridges, etc. — The use of Shims- 
Selection OF Ties for Joints — Preparation of Road- 
bed — Instructions for Track-laying — Use of Compass, 
Level, and Square. 

To ensure the durability and safety of a rail- 
road great care in track-laying in the original 
construction of the road is essential. Unfortu- 
nately, in our country we are prone to sacrifice 
everything to rapidity, even at the risk of great 
expense in the application of remedies to evils 
which ought never to have existed. In order 
that a road may be completed in a given time, a 
system of false economies is thus inaugurated 
which proves a dead weight to the road, and 
from which it most frequently never recovers. 
It is taken for granted that any serious defects 



2 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

will be corrected when the road has once been 
tested. This is a most fallacious idea ; for there 
is, in fact, no remedy for some of the defects of 
poor track-laying. It is true that by ballast- 
ing", putting the track in good surface and line, 
by clearing out ditches and water- courses, the 
road may be fitted for use for a time ; but if 
the ties are improperly laid, if crooked iron be 
laid on a straight line, or if the iron is not suffi- 
ciently curved, there is no remedy but to tear 
up the track and relay it. This is a result not 
at all provided for in the budget of expenses, 
and is therefore not entertained for a moment. 
The road is kept up by ruinous repairs, until 
finally, after a very much shorter period of time 
than if the original work had been thoroughly 
done, the ties are decayed, the iron worn, and 
the road will prematurely require extensive re- 
newals, and probably a receiver. 

CROSS-TIES- 

An important matter in connection with track- 
laying, too often overlooked by railroad mana- 
gers, is the selection of cross- ties. These should 
be of uniform length, breadth, and thickness. 
If they are not so supplied, they should be as- 
sorted before they are laid, so that all the ties 
in a set or a length of iron will be of the same 
size. If they vary in length the rail on one 



SELECTION OF CROSS-TIES. 3 

side of the track gets an uneven support and 
will settle out of surface, while that on the other 
will remain in good surface, making a disagree- 
able track to run over. If they vary in thick- 
ness it causes trouble in frosty weather, as the 
action of frost is not uniform, but varies as the 
ties vary in the depth they enter the ballast. 
Much mischief has been done by frost breaking 
away under the thinner ties while it remained 
solid under the thicker ones as trains were 
passing over them. The action of water set- 
tling under cross-ties where they vary in thick- 
ness often occasions a serious disturbance in 
the surface of track by washing out the gravel 
from under the thick ties, while it is not dis- 
turbed under the thin ones ; thus rendering it 
difficult to keep the track in good surface. If 
the ties vary in width, and are laid the same 
distance apart from centre to centre, the rails 
get an uneven support, to the great damage of 
track and rolling stock. Any one standing by 
the side of such a track while a locomotive is 
passing slowly will observe that the drivers 
spring the rail most where the narrow ties are. 
In passing from a couple of wide ties over a few 
narrow ones placed adjoining them, the narrow 
ties settle into the ballast deeper than the wide 
ones, and the drivers seem to be running down 
hill. On the other hand, when passing from the 
narrow to the wider ties they appear as if run- 



4 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

ning up hill ; thus rising and falling as the ties 
are wide or narrow. If the rails were made of 
a material which would retain its shape after 
they were sprung out of surface by a locomo- 
tive, they would present an appearance similar 
to the waves of the ocean in a gentle breeze. 
Running over such a track is far more expen- 
sive than when ties are of uniform width and 
laid equal distances apart. 

With ties of uniform length, breadth, and 
thickness it is possible to lay a track that a lo- 
comotive will run on as smoothly as a ball on a 
billiard- table, which is certainly very desirable. 

Laying ties is not an operation that requires 
much mechanical skill ; and probably most 
track-layers would consider any hints on the 
subject superfluous. Yet there are matters of 
great importance connected with the operation 
that are frequently overlooked, and it is pro- 
posed to point out here some of the most serious 
faults that are committed. 

Track-layers do not generally take suf35cient 
pains to lay ties at right angles to the rails ; 
thus the ends are brought nearer together on 
one side of the track than on the obh-er, resem- 
bling the letter A. At the next space, perhaps, 
the letter is reversed. This gives a good sup- 
port to a portion of the rail on one side, while 
the rail on the opposite side has no support ; 
and as these conditions are reversed in the next 



LAYING TIES, 5 

space, a disagreeable rocking motion is given to 
the trains, which occasions unnecessary wear to 
track and rolling stock."^ Ties should be laid 
at right angles with the rail, with a view to 
giving the rail a continuous uniform support 
through its entire length. 

Joint-ties should be of equal width and laid 
the same distances from the end of the rail. 
It \till be observed that the ends of rails, at all 
joints having joint-ties properly laid, will be in 
good order ; while those having one joint-tie 
nearer than the other to the end of the rail will 
be battered and broomed, being subjected to a 
pounding from every wheel that passes. By 
paying proper attention to laying joint-ties the 
iron will last much longer than when laid in a 
careless manner, and it would be a great saving 
to railroad companies if the managers would 
see that more care is exercised in this respect 
than is generally given. 

"SIGHTING IN TIES." 

Almost every one has a " way of his own " 
of doing certain kinds of work, and every one 
considers his method the best. It is the practice 
of some engineers to set grade-stakes 20 feet 
apart for laying ties. This is unnecessary labor 
for the engineers, and, moreover, it is inconve- 

* In addition to this the track cannot be kept in perfect gauge when ties 
are laid diagonally.— C. L. 



THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 




SIGHTING IN TIES, 7 

nient for those who lay the ties. The men who 
lay the leading ties must handle a straight-edge 
21 feet in length — a difficult proceeding, espe- 
cially in windy weather. It is a slow and tedious 
operation to place each end of a straight-edge 
on the grade-stakes. A more ready method of 
laying the ^* leading ties '' is to ** sight them in '* 
by the use of " target-boards.'* These boards 
are shown in the annexed cut. They are con- 
structed by taking a board 8 or lo inches in 
width and the length of the ties to be laid. 
Near one end a leg, 3^ or 4 feet in length, 
made of a strip of board, is fastened. At the 
same distance from the other end is a clasp and 
thumb-screw. An iron rod passes through the 
clasp and is driven into the ground far enough to 
support the board steadily. Two boards like 
Fig. I are. required, which should be painted 
white, with a black stripe half an inch wide on 
the upper edge. 

With this arrangement it is only necessary to 
set one grade-stake opposite each centre-stake, 
100 feet apart. Place the leg of the target-board 
on the grade-stake ; then drive the rod into the 
ground sufficiently to hold the board steadily. 
If on a straight line, level the board, and secure 
it in place by the thumb-screw. If on a curve, 
first level the board, then elevate the required 
distance by the y^ inch, ^,or inch marks on the 
rod Place another board like this at the next 



8 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

grade-stake, and you are now ready to proceed. 
The target is made by mortising a standard into 
a block. A cross-piece at the' top of the stan- 
dard is painted like the target-board. Place 
this upon the tie after it is in place. Of course, 
if the top of the target, when placed on the tie, 
coincides with the two boards, the tie is right. 
A sprightly lad, ten or twelve years old, can, 
after a little practice, sight with great accuracy 
and rapidity. 

By this process the leading ties can be laid 
near enough together, so that a short straight- 
edge may be used to lay the intermediates. 
When sufficient leading ties have been laid be- 
tween the target-boards, the rear board may be 
moved ahead, ''jumping '' the other board like 
playing checkers. The distance between the 
leg and the rod of the target-board should be 
equal to the gauge of the track. On curves the 
grade-stakes should be set on the inner side. 

This method relieves the engineers of an im- 
mense amount of unnecessary labor, and track- 
layers who have tried the plan prefer it to any 
other. 

MEASURING OFF FOR JOINT-TIES, ETC. 

This should be done with great care, and, if 
nicely done, will not only save much labor and 
trouble in track-laying, but will tend greatly to 



MEASURING OFF FOR JOINT-TIES. 9 

prolong the life of rails and reduce the expense 
of track repairs. The cross-ties must be pro- 
perly and evenly spaced, sixteen ties to a 30-foot 
rail, with 10 inches between the edges of the 
bearing surfaces at joints, and intermediate ties 
evenly spaced a distance of not over two feet 
from centre to centre. When it is necessary to 
move the joint-tie, the intermediate ties should 
also be moved, to make them equal distances 
apart. This will not only prevent the wear of 
the rails at the joint, but will save much ex- 
pense in track repairs. 

The ties should not be laid far in advance of 
the rails, as it is convenient, in measuring for 
joints, to go back occasionally and measure from 
the end of the rails and correct the measure- 
ment, which will obviate the necessity of moving 
ties after being once laid. The measuring pole 
or rod should be as long as the target-rail. The 
length of shorter rails may be marked on the pole. 
The joint-stakes should be made square and 
straight. Set the stake ahead of the end of the 
pole (or the marks, if for short iron) just the 
distance that is allowed for expansion, and by 
driving the stakes perpendicularly and firm the 
measurement will be correct. By exercising a 
little care to place the stakes in line, the mea- 
suring will be more accurate than when driven 
zigzag. Rails should be of uniform length, 
except a few shorter ones for curves. In laying 



lO THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

track on curves it is necessary to use a short one 
for the inner rail occasionally, to keep the joint 
even v/ith the centre of the opposite rail, or to 
maintain even joints. In such cases the mea- 
suring-pole must be ^' set back '' as much as is 
necessary. The man in charge of laying the 
iron should keep watch and notify the *^ marker '' 
when the iron has run ahead far enough to need 
the short rails. The marker can thus act under- 
standingly. The ends of the ties on the outside 
on double track, and on one side on single 
track, should be lined up parallel with the rails. 

LAYING TIES ON BRIDGES, TRESTLE-WORK, ETC. 

Tnere are some splendid ' railroad bridges in 
this country, built at an enormous expense, 
which are greatly injured because the ties on 
them are improperly laid. When cross-ties are 
used on bridges, they should be laid by a me- 
chanic, with great nicety, as this is essential to 
the life of the bridge. In adzing them down to 
a uniform thickness great care should be taken 
that there is not the slightest variation ; for, al- 
though it is usual to use sawed ties on bridges, 
they will be found to v;iry considerably in thick- 
ness. It is not uncommon to find track laid on 
bridges where the ties have not been properly 
fitted, and shims used to level up with. The 
shims are often made of soft wood, in which 



LAYING TIES ON BRIDGES, II 

case they are worthless, or they work out of 
place, thus leaving the rail with only a bearing 
on every third or fourth tie. This should never 
be allowed, as it causes great strain and vi- 
bration and injures the structure. Cross-ties 
should be securely fastened, so that they cannot 
slip or jar out of place. Frequently three or 
four ties may be found out of place, and so close 
as to touch each other, while the rail has no sup- 
port for several feet. Of course such things 
would not be looked for on some of our first- 
class roads ; but they are far too common in 
this country, both for the good of the railroad 
corporations and the public. 

Under no circumstances should the ties be 
notched, but, should they be twisted, they must 
be made true with the adze, so that the rails 
may have an even bearing. 



The ties on bridges, as well as the bridges, 
should be under the charge of the bridge-men. 
No ties should be laid on any bridge so thin as 
to permit the spike to go through into the 
stringer ; the stringers, except those on the 
outside, should not be marked or marred with 
a spike. On all bridges long ties should be 
used, not less than 12 feet, arid they should be 
5 inches by 8 inches, broadside downwards, 
notched carefully over each tie, not over 3 
inches apart, and bolted every 6 feet, so as to 



12 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

avoid jarring in case a train crosses the bridge 
off the rails. In order to avoid, if possible, the 
destruction of the bridge, a guard-timber should 
be notched over the ties i foot outside the rail, 
and bolted every 5 feet to the outside stringer, 

JOINTS. 

In the preceding instructions, written some 
years ago, it has been assumed that the joints 
are laid upon ties, and the remarks are univer- 
sally correct for a track laid with the old-fash- 
ioned chair ; but at this time no road of impor- 
tance uses the chair, except to wear out old 
material. The chair has given way to the 
ordinary fish-plate, and this has been supplanted 
in many instances by numerous devices, such as 
the angle-bar, the Trimble, the Fisher & Norris, 
the Dilworth & Porter, the Arthur, and many 
other patent joints, which I will treat of in a 
separate chapter. 

The opinions of engineers differ upon the 
question of the position of the joint with the 
fish-plate, and many experienced engineers and 
track-men maintain that the suspension-joint is 
the proper place. I have given this subject 
careful attention, and maintain that with the 
ordinary fish-plate the joint on the tie is the 
proper position ; and as overwhelming evidence 
of the correctness of this I claim that the broken 



PREPARING ROADWAY FOR TIES. 1 3 

fish-plates with the suspension-joint are far more 
frequent than in the joint on the tie. But I 
also assert that no fish-plate fastening that I 
have ever seen has proved strong enough for 
the steel rails now in use, and therefore the 
wisest engineers are seeking for a joint which 
shall have all the requisites of economy and 
strength. 

In this chapter nothing is said of preparing 
the roadway for the ties. When this is done, 
much of the use of level and sight-board recom- 
mended in the chapter and universally prac- 
tised is needless. The proper and only way to 
secure a thoroughly good track is, before a tie 
is laid, and just before track-laying is begun, to 
have a small gang of experienced graders ahead 
of the tie-layers, with an engineer of experience 
and good sense, who shall give the grade about 
every loo feet and the elevation of the curves. 
The graders can thus make the road-bed as 
smooth as a floor, and, however much it may 
cost, the expense is a mere trifle compared with 
that of the plan generall}'' practised ; for by the 
ordinary plan the rails are bent or damaged by 
the construction locomotive through the almost 
universal carelessness of either the engineer or 
contractor. These graders should have sight- 
boards, and no half-way levelling should be 
permitted. The result will amply pay. Of 
course a difficulty will ensue, provided the ties 



14 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

have not been hewn to a uniform thickness ; but 
this should be attended to, and when a tie 
varies it should be adzed, so as to have a per- 
fect surface. K few hundred dollars spent in 
this preparatory work will often save the ex- 
penditure of many thousands, especially if a 
track be laid in the beginning of winter. 

THE USE OF COMPASS, LEVEL, AND SQUARE. 

The use of the track-level on railroads is in- 
dispensable to obtain a good track. 

I am sorry to say that many railroad men 
fancy that the eye serves the same purpose as a 
good instrument. Managers will do well to 
change the ideas of such men, and, failing in 
this, to get others of better sense. The track- 
men who use the level most carefully will show 
the least wear and tear of track and rolling 
stock to the tonnage and speed, and vice versa. 

Let every section-foreman be supplied with a 
good track-level, each road-master with a spare 
one and a light test-level and gauge combined, 
for his own use as inspector. Under no cir- 
cumstances should he permit the track to be 
put up without the use of the instrument.- 

Whenever a section-foreman does not use his 
level, and shows intractable pig-headedness upon 
this point, put him at some work more suited 
to his capacity. 



INSTRUCTIOXS FOR TRACK-LAYING. I 5 

The good mason prides himself upon the use 
of the three tools of his craft — the compass, the 
level, the square. These tools — the compass 
being represented by the transit — are equally 
essential to the good track-man, and it should 
be his pride to apply them constantly in the 
perfecting of his work. 

The compass, or transit, is the instrument for 
tracing the line. A perfect alignment of track 
is as important as a perfect level. The level, it 
is well understood, is used for the purpose of 
getting the two rails of the track at the same 
height or level, and to elevate the outer rail of 
curves, so that the centrifugal force may as 
nearly as possible be balanced or counteracted. 
The square is the gauge — a gauge that is not a 
square is not a perfect gauge. The Hunting- 
ton gauge is a square, and by it the rails are 
laid and maintained perfectly parallel. 

He who neglects the use of these three in- 
struments can never be a good trackman and 
must always remain a comparatively unprofit- 
able servant. 



TRACK-LAYING GANG. 

To lay track at an average rate of half a mile 
a day, the grading being well done, the ties dis- 
tributed ahead, and the iron and other supplies 
delivered by a construction train promptly, a 



1 6 « THE ROAD MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

gang of thirty-one men and a horse are re- 
quired, the men divided about as follows : 

I foreman. 

4 men spacing ties. 

6 men on iron car. 

8 men spiking. 

4 men holding up end of ties. 

4 men bolting splices. 

I boy distributing spikes. 

I boy on iron car. 

I boy carrying water. 

I horse hauling iron car. 

These will require the following tools : 

I iron car with rollers. 

1 I -in. rope for same. 
6 picks. 

24 shovels. 

2 adzes. 

12 spike-hammers. 

2 claw-bars. 

12 steel lining-bars. 
6 wrenches. 

1 sledge, 12 lbs. 
12 cold-chisels. 

3 pick-handles. 

6 spike-hammer handles. 

4 rail-tongs. 

2 rail-forks, 
4 gauges, 



TRACK-GANG AND THEIR TOOLS, 1 7 

I double-clamp gauge for iron can 
I tie-pole, 30 ft. long. 

1 tie-line, y^ in., i,ooo ft. long. 
12 expansion-shims. 

2 water-pails. 
2 dippers. 

2 tool-boxes. 
I set harness. 

The number of men and teams required to 
distribute the ties depends so much upon the 
manner in which they are delivered that no 
fixed rule can be given. 



CHAPTER II. 

LAYING THE RAILS. 

Damages by Rough Handling — Curving Iron — Cocked 
Joints, and How to Remedy Them — Expansion of Iron 
— Usual Provision against it — Caution Necessary in 
Replacing Repaired Rails — The Four-bolted Fish- 
Joints — Hoop-iron Shims— Suspension-joints— Crfeping 
Track. - 

Every year a large c^mount of money is 
wasted throughout the country by bad handling 
of railroad iron. It is often bent by being care- 
lessly thrown from cars and laid without being 
straightened, or it is thrown to one side as use- 
less. Steel rails should be unloaded more care- 
fully even than iron. They should be slid off 
the car on skids, or else dropped square in a 
soft place, each rail being moved to give room 
for the next, no one falling on another. 

CURVING IRON. 

It is customary, with most track-layers, to 
curve iron by dropping it as it is drawn from 
the iron cars, when laying it. This is a bad 
practice, as it is either curved too much or not 
enough ; or, as is generally the case, it is not 

i3 



EXPANSION OP IRON. 1 9 

curved at all, but only gets an elbow in the 
middle of the rail, while from the middle to the 
ends it remains perfectly straight. Sometimes, 
on ^slight curves, the iron is curved after spik- 
ing by throwing the curve into it with lining- 
bars. This makes a very handsome track for a 
short time ; but the iron will soon regain its 
former shape and become straight. Straight 
iron wears rapidly on curves, and it is difficult 
to keep in line. Iron should never be laid on 
curves until it is properly curved; and, if no 
curving-machine is at hand, it can be very 
nicely done with the old-fashioned apparatus — 
viz., a chain, lever and sledge, a couple of ties, 
and a fishing-line. 

EXPANSION OF IRON. 

Many serious accidents are caused in this 
country in the summer months by the expan- 
sion of iron. These accidents are not confined 
to what are called '' one-horse roads,'' but fre- 
quently occur on some of the best-managed 
roads in the country. In the month of July, 
1867, eight serious accidents occurred in one 
day, all caused by expansion of track-iron ! 
Several lives were lost, and the damage 
amounted to an enormous sum. Probably 
there are few more fruitful sources of accident 
than .expansion, although it is fair to presume 



20 THJS ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

that there is not a track-layer or a section- 
master in the country unacquainted with this 
property of iron. It is safe to say that, as a 
cause of disaster, it ranks next to collisions and 
misplaced switches. Accidents from expansion 
are always serious ones, usually resulting in a 
general smash-up, with loss of life. Yet these 
accidents may be prevented by allowing for 
expansion, especially when rails are laid in cold 
weather. In winter a distance of f of an inch in 
latitudes of severe cold, and in summer -^-^ of an 
inch, must be left between the ends of the rails 
to allow for expansion, with 30-foot rails. 

It is customary to drive the rails to place 
with a sledge, and a chip of wood, or little 
sliver, is placed between the ends of the rails 
to keep them open a little for expansion. This 
is of no use, for a blow of the sledge will smash 
the chip, or compress it to the thickness of a 
sheet of paper. The length of iron and tem- 
perature of the weather should always be taken 
into consideration. Probably one cause of 
track-layers neglecting to make provision for ex- 
pansion lies in the fact that, years ago, the iron 
was only about half the length of that now in 
use ; and in laying the long iron now they only 
make the same provision that they did for short 
iron. A continuous line of track, five hundred 
miles in length, will expand one-fourth of a 
mile. Railroad managers would do well to see 



ALLOWANCE FOR EXPANSION. 21 

that all track-men in their employ are posted in 
this matter ; and, as different rules are needed 
in different parts of the country, the subject 
should be attended to by engineers, each in his 
own locality. 

Care is also needed in replacing iron that has 
been repaired. In welding the ends of battered 
rails they are frequently left a trifle longer than 
they were before, and, when they are replaced 
in the track, they take up all the space, leaving 
no room for expansion. It is a common prac- 
tice for repair-men, when replacing mended 
iron, to squeeze it in perfectly tight. In such 
cases they are sure to have trouble in hot wea- 
ther. In most cases it is not economical to re- 
pair rails, but instead the battered ends of the 
rails should be cut off carefully with a saw, and 
the good pieces repunched and relaid in strings, 
thoroughly bolted up. 

The iron car should always be provided with 
a shim-box on each side. The boxes should be 
divided into various compartments to hold 
shims of various thicknesses, not only to be 
used at different seasons of the year,^but at 
different times of the day. The thicker ones 
should be used in the morning when it is cool, 
and at the close of the day, and thinner ones in 
the heat of the day. It is a good plan to take 
hoop or band iron, i inch or i^ inches wide, 
and of various thicknesses, and cut into lengths 



22 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

of about 3 inches; then bend the pieces in the 
middle at right angles, so that they will form 
two sides of a square ; select the proper thick- 
ness, and use them by placing one end between 
the rails and the other on the top of one rail at 
the joint. After the joint has been bolted and 
spiked the shims can be easily removed for 
future use. This is an important matter, and 
should receive more attention than is generally 
given to it. 

Trouble is sometimes experienced on roads 
where it would seem that ample provision had 
been made for expansion. This is sometimes 
caused by sand, gravel, particles of iron, etc., 
getting into the space between the rails at the 
joint, where the chair prevents its working out. 
There is no remedy for this except to exercise 
care in ballasting, and to clean out the joints as 
well as possible after dressing off the track. 
Expansion may also be hindered by bolting the 
fish-bars so tight as to prevent the slip of the 
rail, causing it to buckle, which throws it out 
of line. This is not likely to occur where elastic 
w^ashers or wood is used. 

^^ Suspension joints " have been used consider- 
ably on some roads, and thus far have given 
good satisfaction. With these joints no chair 
is used, and the joint is made by placing two 
broad-faced ties near together, each tie being 
near the end of the rail, leaving about five inches 



CREEPING OF RAILS. 2^ 

of the ends of each rail with no support except 
the lish-bars. This leaves the joint suspended 
between two ties, ten inches apart, and all sand, 
gravel, etc., is allowed to fall through, leaving 
the joint always free."^ 

- CREEPING TRACK. 

Much damage has been done by expansion 
from improper treatment of ** creeping track/' 
The creeping of track occurs most frequently 
on roads with heavy traffic, and where grades 
are heavy and change often. The rails in creep- 
ing have a tendency to move towards the foot 
of the grade, bringing the ends of all the rails 
on the incline in contact, while at the summit 
there is sometimes an open space. This space 
is sometimes filled with a hard-w^ood plug or 
block, driven in tightly to prevent its working 
out. On some roads a '^ plug-chair " is used in 
place of the block. These chairs are of the 
ordinary form of cast chairs, with a tongue in 
the middle of the rail-seat, the tongue being in 
the form of a cross-section of the rail. The 
tongue, or plug, is cast with the chair, and chairs 
are cast having the plug of various thicknesses, 
varying from one to three or four inches, to fill 
a space of any wndth. Of course these chairs 
prevent the brooming of iron at the open spaces, 

* It is not advisable to use a suspended joint unless the joint is stronger than 
the ordinary fish-plate. 



24 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT 

and are also a great relief to rolling stock ; but 
they prevent expansion, and their use should be 
abandoned. Fish-bars prevent creeping in a 
great measure, but there are thousands of miles 
of road in the country still using the old style 
of chairs, and the railroad community is greatly 
in need of some effective contrivance for keep- 
ing rails in their places longitudinally. The in- 
ventor who will produce it will, no doubt, be 
w^ell rewarded. 

[Since the. above was written, which was 
several years ago, chairs have generally disap- 
peared ; at least, they are now seldom used for 
new roads and renewals. Many new patterns for 
joints, too, have been introduced. Some of these 
are m.entioned in Chapter X., entitled *' Patterns 
of Rails — Joints," which begins on page 91 of this 
book. In that chapter, moreover, reference is 
made to engravings of the '* Samson,'' the 
"Fisher'^ (often called the ^^ Fisher & Norris"), 
the *' Dilworth & Porter,'* and some other of 
the forms of fish-joints now in common use, 
including the ordmary fish-joint.] 

RAILS. 

In one mile there are 5,280 feet, or 1,760 yards. 
To lay one mile of track requires : 
704 fifteen-feet rails, 
660 sixteen-feet rails, 



NUMBER AND TONS OF RAILS PER MILE. 2$ 

587 eigh teen-feet rails, 
528 twenty-feet rails, 
503 twent3^-one-feet rails, 
377 twenty eight-feet rails, 
352 thirty-feet rails. 

Rails weigh about ten pounds per yard for 
each square inch of sectional area. For example : 
The cross-section of a 56-lb. rail is S^q square 
inches. 



Sectional Area in 


Weight per yard in 


Tons per mile (2,000 


Tons per mile 


square inches. 


pounds. 


lbs.) . 


(2,240 lbs.) 


4 


40 


70.4 


62.85 


5 


50 


88.0 


78.57 


5i 


56 


9S.5 


88.00 


6 


60 


105.6 


94. 23 


7 


70 


123.2 


110.00 


8 


80 


140.8 


125.71 


9 


90. 


158.4 


141.42 


10 


100 


176.0 


157.14 



For any weight of rail : Multiply the weight 
in pounds per yard by eleven (ii), and divide 
the result by seven (7). The answer will be the 
number of *^ long " tons (2,240 lbs.) per mile. 



CROSS-TIES, 



The number of cross-ties per mile, when they 
are placed 2 feet apart from centre to centre, is 
2,641 ; at 2}^ feet apart, 2,348 ; at 2}^ feet, 2,113 » 
at 2}( feet, 1,921 ; and at 3 feet apart, 1,761. 



CHAPTER III. 

ABOUT SPIKES. 

Wasteful Handling — Driving Spikes— How they are 
Spoiled — The Right Method— The Gauge : Its Misuse — 
Oscillation of Railroad Cars : Bad Sinking One Cause 
— Other Causes — Spiking on Bridges — Waste of Rail- 
plates. 

The driving of spikes is an operation which 
is usuall}^ performed in a slovenly manner, 
and a great deal of mone}^ is wasted in conse- 
quence. Kegs of spikes are thrown from the 
car into ditches, culverts, cattle-guards, etc., 
the kegs are broken open, and a portion of their 
contents lost in the mud or covered with gravel 
and never seen again, unless they should acci- 
dentally be dug up, years afterwards, by repair- 
men. If a little more care was exercised in this 
respect it would be well, not only with regard 
to spikes, but with bolts, nuts, washers, chairs, 
fish-bars, etc., which frequently share the same 
fate. But it is the manner of driving spikes 
that chiefly needs improving ; it may be changed 
greatly to the advantage of all concerned. 

Spiking, like all work connected with track- 
laying in construction, is usually done with 

26 



DRIVING SPIKES, 2/ 

a rush, and, consequently, poorly done. The 
spikes are often driven under the rail ; that is, 
they are set leaning, so that the point either 
goes with a slant under the rail, or, in the other 
direction, from it. It is wrong in either case, 
as the spike can never afterward be drawn for 
track repairs without bending it so as to render 
it unfit for future use ; for an attempt to straighten 
it will break it. Spikes should be driven as 
nearly perpendicular as possible. Tall spikers 
usually set the spike leaning from them; pro- 
bably for convenience of driving. The practice 
is a bad one, as it brings the head of the spike 
down on the rail edgewise, which weakens it; 
moreover, the spike is in a worse position for 
drawing than when driven in the other direction 
above mentioned. In drawing a spike driven 
with the top leaning from the spiker, the head 
is almost sure to break off; or, if it does not, it 
will be bent to one side, so as to render it 
entirely worthless. For proof of this, notice 
the kegs and barrels full of bent and broken 
spikes, and the loose piles of the same article 
around every car-house, shop, or depot, or in 
the scrap-house, to say nothing of the great 
numbers of them that are lost in the gravel. 
Most of these spikes might have been used 
again, if they had been properly driven. 

Spiking joints is often carelessly done, al- 
though with some kinds of chairs now in use 



28 ■ THE ROAD-MASTER>S ASSISTANT, 

much care is necessary to secure a true joint, so 
as not to subject the ends of the rails to pound- 
ing and battering, which soon renders them 
unfit for use. 

Many heads are broken off the spikes, when 
driving them in a hurry, by striking the last 
blow too forcibly. When the spike is nearly 
driven home, a light blow should be given, so 
as just to bring the head to the rail without 
cracking or straining it. In frosty weather 
bushels of spike-heads may be picked up on 
some roads which have been needlessly broken 
by carelessness in striking. In spiking the 
gauge side care should be taken to place the 
gauge at right angles with the rail. It is not 
uncommon to find tracks to vary in width from 
^ to ^ of an inch, and sometimes even more. 
One cause of this variation lies in not placing 
the gauge properly. On straight lines it is not 
difficult to get a true gauge, if ordinary pains 
are taken ; but on curves and frogs, etc., it re- 
quires considerable care to place the gauge 
properly, as the eye is liable to be misled by 
surrounding objects. But the greatest difficulty 
in this respect is generally encountered on 
curves, by reason of the inner rail ^'running 
ahead,'' as before mentioned. Spikers are in 
the habit of placing the gauge diagonally across 
the track at the joint on both sides of the track; 
and when one joint is 15 or 20 inches in advance 



IMPORTANCE OF ACCURATE GAUGE. 29 

of that on the opposite side it has the effect to 
alter the width of the track very much. This 
variation in the track is a serious evil, which 
may, in some measure, be remedied b}^ proper 
care in spiking the gauge side/"* There are 
other causes of the evil above mentioned, which 
together have the effect to make this variation 
far greater than is generally supposed. The 
gauge is sprung by driving the outside spike 
under the rail, so as to draw the rail in ; or, 
perhaps, the inner spike is started first, w^hioh 
dravv^s the rail out a trifle too much ; and, after 
the spikes are once driven, it is left as it is, 
right or wrong, not being considered of any 
importance, as it is but a trifle too wide or nar- 
row, as the case may be. The oscillation of 
railroad cars is, in a measure, due to variation 
in gauge. The question, '^'Why do railroad- 
cars oscillate?" has lately been discussed in the 
scientific and mechanical papers, and has been 
ascribed by some, w^ho have given the matter 
considerable attention, to the bevel of car- 
wheels. There is no doubt that conical wheels 
are, to a certain extent, the cause of oscillation 
of cars when running on a track in good line, 
and with a true and uniform gauge. In the 
discussion here alluded to the oscillation of 
railroad cars is described as something ex- 

* The proper remedy is in the use of the gauge of Mr. Huntington, which 
will prevent these mistakes.— C. L. 



30 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

tremely disagreeable, and with a good deal of 
truth. There are, however, a few roads in the 
country where cars are comparatively free from 
this nuisance. It is customary to allow ^ to }4 
of an inch for play between the flange of the 
wheel and the rail ; or, in other words, there is 
a difference of from one-half to one inch be- 
tween wheel and track-gauge. The compromise 
wheel, of course, has much more, running on 
the 4 feet lo inch gauge, and consequently there 
is more oscillation. This is necessary, for obvi- 
ous reasons, and with this space for play it is 
impossible to prevent oscillation entirely. There 
is, however, nothing particularly damaging from 
this cause to track or rolling stock, when track 
is laid to a true gauge, w^hile a gentle, regular, 
swinging motion of a passenger coach is not a 
disagreeable sensation to passengers. It is the 
sudden jerking and twitching from side to side 
that nervous people so dislike, which tends to 
the rapid wear of track and roiling stock, and is 
not imfrequently the cause of accidents. 

As the rail is a guide to the wheels, the line 
side may be in perfect condition ; yet, if the 
gauge side varies, it will be seen to present a 
snaky appearance, full of kinks, and, as the flange 
of the wheel is as likely to follow the gauge side 
as the other, the disagreeable oscillations will 
still occur. If track is }4 or ^ of an inch too 
wide, then, of course, the trucks have an ex- 



DEFECTS CAUSII/G OSCILLATION'. 31 

cessive side motioPx, producing v/hat is called 
^' gauge concussion." Another cause of concus- 
sion and oscillation may be found in the surface 
of track, even when the gauge is tolerably cor- 
rect. It is a fact not generally known that a 
locomotive or car wheel will generally follow 
the highest rail on straight line, when one side 
of the track has settled more than another. For 
instance, if a rail, or the length of several rails, 
on the right side of the track has settled so as to 
be lower than on the left, the flange on the 
wheel will follow the left side ; but suppose this 
condition of the track to be reversed for a few 
lengths of iron beyond, then the flange Vv^ill fol- 
low the right rail, and so on, continually chang- 
ing from side to side, causing both oscillation 
and concussion. These difficulties are not so 
serious on curves as on straight line, unless the 
track is out of line, and in that case they are far 
more disagreeable on curves. 

There is but little track in this country with 
straight line perfectly level, for various reasons 
above mentioned — viz. : improperly-selected 
sleepers, improper manner of laying them, etc., 
etc. The track settling out of surface, and the 
incline of the ties (the cross-section of the track) 
continually changing from side to side, the 
trains which pass over such track at high ve- 
locities (the flanges of wheels striving to follow 
the higher rails) are, in consequence, subjected 



32 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

to sudden and powerful lateral motion. This 
motion, on track kept in good repair, is not 
always productive of any serious evils ; but, as 
before said, it greatly increases the wear of rails 
and rolling stock. 

SPIKING ON BRIDGES, CULVERTS, ETC. 

A great deal of valuable timber is destroyed 
and track rendered unsafe on bridges, culverts, 
etc., by using common spikes, which act as so 
many wedges to split the stringers or rail- 
plates. When the track-layer is not furnished 
with bridge-spikes he should provide them him- 
self by having the blacksmith sharpen a suffi- 
cient quantity of common spikes, so as to reverse 
the points. This will prevent the splitting of 
rail-plates, or checking them, which lets in 
water, causing them soon to decay. There are 
many bridges the stringers of Avhich are so 
decayed that the spikes can be pulled out with 
the fingers. The main body of the timber may 
be perfectly sound, w^hile a line along the base 
of the rail, on either side, and under the rail, 
may be so far decayed that the spikes will work 
out by the jar of passing trains. On some roads 
it is not uncommon to see track-men picking up 
the spikes and driving them in a new place ; or, 
if this has been done so many times that there 
is no 7iew placCy they make one by plugging a 



SPIKING ON STRINGERS. 33 

hole, or filling it with sand, in the soundest 
place they can find. 

Thousands of rail-plates are now lying b}^ the 
roadside, rotting, which might safely have done 
duty for years longer had they received proper 
treatment. Such timber as is used for this pur- 
pose is expensive, and no railroad company can 
Avell afford such wanton destruction of property. 
Of course these timbers should not remain in 
the track one minute after they become unsafe ; 
but, v/ith proper usage, they will do service 
much longer than v/ith such usage as they too 
often receive. Rail-plates should be securely 
fastened to prevent spreading. 



CHAPTER IV. 

CATTLE-GUARDS, CULVERTS, AND TURN- 
CUTS. 

CattlE'GUArds often Mere Traps— Their Proper Con- 
struction—Laying Iron over Cattle-guards, Cul- 
verts, AND Road-crossings— Laying Turn-outs— Locat- 
ING Frogs— Tables for Putting in Frogs and Switch- 
es — Curving Iron Guard-rails — Measuring Distances 
BY THE Hammer — Adjustment of Guard rails — Tie- 
rods— A Few Words of Home and Foreign Roads. / 

Cattle-guards are sometimes constructed 
by digging a narrow, shallow pit and covering 
it with slats. This is certainly not the best 
form of cattle-guard. Some more ingenious 
device should be employed, as there is dan- 
ger of killing stock in one at road-crossings. 
Frightened animals become entangled in the 
slats, and are held until crushed by the train, 
which is not unfrequently thrown from the 
track. Railroad companies have sometimes 
suffered by traps of this sort, but they continue 
their use. The most effective cattle-guard is a 
deep pit left entirely open, without even cross- 
sleepers. These pits should be strongly walled 
up, either with masonry or timber (the former 

34 



LAYING TRACK ON CATTLE-GUARDS, ETC, 35 

is preferable, but it is difficult to obtain ma- 
terial in some sections), and the track laid on 
stringers in a substantial manner — not cobbled 
up on ties or fence-posts, as is frequently the 
case. Nothing gives our railroads a more 
poverty-stricken, slovenly appearance than a 
shabby and unsafe manner of building cattle- 
guards and culverts. 

In laying iron on cattle-guards, open culverts, 
etc., care should be taken that the joints do not 
come on the end of the stringer outside the 
face of the wall or abutment. If the joint is 
near the end of the stringer, it is likely to injure 
the m.asonry by rocking when trains are passing. 
It is far preferable, therefore, to bring the joint 
near the middle of the timber. This can be 
easily arranged by laying a few lengths of short 
iron just before reaching the culvert or cattle- 
guard ; or, if there is no short iron at hand, it 
is better to cut a length for that purpose, as the 
pieces need not be wasted ; they will be wanted 
for guard-rails or something else of the kind. 
The same care should be exercised in regard to 
road- crossings, except that the joints should be 
brought outside the planking. This cannot 
always be done, owing to the length of track 
that must be planked ; but there ai'e many 
crossings that may be laid with no track-joint 
in the planking.. This can easily be done by the 
track-layer, while it will save a great deal of 



3^ THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

trouble to the section-master and expense to the 
company. The principal objection to a joint in 
a road-crossing, where it is covered with plank, 
is that it is frequently necessary to disturb the 
crossing for track repairs. To do this the 
planking must be taken up ; this often results 
in the splitting of the planks, so that new ones 
must be furnished or the crossing is not left in 
a safe condition. Besides, it often happens that 
frost remains under the planks, in which case it 
requires a vast amount of hard labor with the 
pick to accomplish the necessary repairs. The 
reason is this : the joint-tie is more likely to 
settle than any other part, and water will remain 
a long time under the crossing after it has en- 
tirely left other portions of the track; so that 
the joint in the crossing needs frequent raising 
to keep it in surface, while if it was outside the 
planking it would be easily accessible for repairs 
when needed. Every section-master has expe- 
rienced more or less trouble with joints in road- 
crossings ; and, as this trouble is costly, it would 
be well for those in charge of track-laying to 
give it special attention. 

LAYING TURN-OUTS. 

It requires considerable skill and judgment 
to lay a good turn-out. There are many track- 
layers of great experience w^ho are not success- 
ful in this branch of their work ; and again, many 



LAYING TURN-OUTS, 37 

men skillful on turn-outs are not rapid and suc- 
cessful in track-laying. -However, the latter 
make the best track- layers in time, though, pro- 
bably, for a while they will exercise unneces- 
sar}^ care until they gain the general experience 
which will enable them to avoid wasting time 
in the plainer work. 

The principal difficulties encountered by 
track-layers of limited experience are in get- 
ting the frogs the proper distance from the 
switch, and the right distance apart when more 
than one frog is to be laid. 

In placing a frog the track-layer wants to 
know liow far from tJie heel of the szvitck-rail to 
place the point of the frog. This distance depends 
upon the gauge, the angle of the frog, and the 
*^ throw '' of the switch-rail. Frogs are usually 
made six inches across the head, and with four 
inches of opening at the mouth. With these 
dimensions the following tables will give the 
distances in feet and decimals from the ^' toe '* 
or '' head " of the switch to the point of the 
frog — the throw of the switch being five inches, 
except for the three-feet gauge, for which it is 
three inches. 

When a double turn-out is to be laid from the 
main track, on a straight line, one to each side 
of the main track, it is not a difficult aflfair, pro- 
vided the frogs are of the right size and kngth 
in relation to each other. Of course the two 



38 



THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 



long frogs generally should be of equal length, 
and placed opposite each other in the main 
track. When these two frogs have been put in 
place, it is easy to ascertain the proper location 
of the short or centre frog by the following tables : 

Tables for Putting in Frogs and Switches. 

GAUGE, 6 FEET ; THROW, 5 INCHES. 



Propor- 
tion of 
frog. 



I to 4 

I " 5 

I *' 6 

I - 7 

I *' & 

I *' 9 

I **io 

I *'ii 



Fro^' 
angle. 



14^15 
11^25 

9° 32 
8° 10 
7° 09 
6° 21 
5° 44 
5° 12 



Angle 
of cur- 
vature 
of 
lead. 



29 24 

18° 54 
f3° 10 

9° 42 
7° 24 
5° 54' 
4^44 
3° 55 



Hadius 

of 

curve, 

feet. 



I97.I 

3045 
436.1 

591-5 
775.0 

971.8 
1211.0 
1463.2 



Middle 

ordinate, 

inches. 



I7J^ 

I7J^ 
I7>^ 

11%. 

n% 



Length 
of^ 

switch 
rail, 
feet. 



12.8 

15.9 
19.0 
22.1 

25.3 

28.4 

31.7 

34.8 



So . 

O -^ fcJD 

<tM 9 



35.2 

44.1 
530 

61.9 

70.7 

79^6 

88.3 
97.2 



Crotch-frog. 



Propor- 
tion. 



to 



2.9 
3.6 

43 
5.0 
5.7 
6.4 
7.0 

7.7 



Distance 

from 
head-block 

to point 
of frog, fr . 



22.4 

27.6 

32.9 
38.0 

43-3 

48.6 

5-.5 

57.8 





GAUGE, 4 FEET ^M INCHES 


; THROW, 


5 INCHES. 














Bo. 


Crotch-frog. 




Frog 
angle. 


Angle 
of cur- 


Radius 

of 

curve, 

f^et. 


Middle 


Length 


\3& 




Propor- 




Distance 


tion of 
frog. 


vature 

of 

lead. 


ordinate, 
inches. 


switch 
rail, 
feet. 




Propor- 
tion. 


from 

head-block 

to point 














5^ a 




of frog, ft. 


I to 4 


14° 15' 


37° 34' 


1559 


14 


11.4 


26.2 


I to 2.Q 


16.2 


I - 5 


II 25' 


24° 06 


239.6 


14 


14. 1 


32.9 


I " 3.6 


20.0 


I " 6 


9" 32' 


16° 40' 


345.0 


14 


16.9 


39-5 


I " 4-3 


237 


I " 7 


8' 10 


12'' 19 


4313 


14 


18.9 


46.9 


I " 50 


28.3 


I '' 8 


7"oq' 


9° 28' 


606.0 


14 


22.4 


528 


I " 5-7 


31-3 


I - 9 


6' 21' 


7^30' 


764.5 


14 


25.2 


59 4 


I " 6.4 


351. 


I "10 


5" 44 


6^04' 


949.1 


14 


28.1 


659 


I " 7-0 


37.9 


I ''11 


5" 12 


5^14' 


1096.0 


14 


30.1 


73-3 


I " 7.7 


42.5 



FROG AND SWITCH TABLES. 



39 



G-\17GE, 5 FEET; THROW, 5 INCHES. 



Propor- 
tion of 
frog. 



Fro^ 

anHe. 



Angle 
ofcur- 
vature 

of 
IcaJ. 



Radius 

of 

curve, 

feet. 



Middle 

ordinate, 

inches. 



Length 
of 

switch 
ral, 
feet. 



I to 4 


< ^5; 


35° 20' 


165.0 


WA 


r " 5 


11° 25' 


22° 42' 


254-5 


14% 


I •* 6 


9" 32' 


15" 44' 


365-4 


14;^ • 


I " 7 


8° 10' 


10° o8' 


566.2 


14% 


I ** 8 


7"og' 


8^54' 


642 


i4J^ 


I " 9 


6° 21' 


7" 04 


8114 


14% 


I "10 


5:44 


5^42' 


1003.7 


i4?g 


I "11 


5^12 


4° 44' 


1210.9 


I4>^ 



II. 6 
14.6 

17.4 
21.7 
23.0 
25.9 
28.9 
31.7 



Distance from 
head-block to 
point of frog. 


28.4 


354 
42.6 

48.3 


57.0 
64.1 


71.1 

7S.3 



Crotch-froc 



Propor- 
tion. 



to 2.9 

" 3.6 

" 4.3 

" 5.0 

" 5.7 

- 6.4 

*' 7.0 

" 7.7 



Distance 

from 
head-block 

to point 
of frog, ft. 



17.8 
2T.7 

25.8 
28.6 
34.2 
38.2 
41.3 

45-4 



GAUGE, 3 FEET ; THROW, 3 INCHES. 



Propor- 
tion of 
frog. 


Frog 
angle. 


Angle 

of cur- 

vatur^ 

of 

LaJ. 


Radius 

of 
curve, 
feet. 


I to 4 


14° 15' 


58° 48' 


102 


I *' 5 


II 25' 


37" 48' 


154 


I ** 6 


q" 32' 


26° 20' 


220 


I " 7 


8" 10' 


19° 24' 


• 296.8 


I " 8 


7" eg' 


14" 48' 


388.2 


I - Q 


6° 21' 


11° 4S' 


486.5 


I *'I0 


5" 44' 


9° 28' 


606.0 


I "II 


5" 12' 


7" 50' 


732.0 


I '^12 


4^46' 


6° 37' 


866.3 


I ''13 


4^24' 


5" 38' 


IOI6.O 


I -14 


4° 06' 


4^52' 


II77.O 



:^Iiddle 

ord nite, 

inches. 



■&% 
8*4 

8?i 
8Ji 
8?i 
i% 
8M 

m 



Length 
cf 

switch 
rail, 
feet. 



105 
12. 1 

13-9 
15.6 

17.4 
19. 1 

20 7 
22.5 
24.3 



So . 

a3_ ' 4J 



Crotch-frog. 



Propor- 
tion. 



16.9 
21.2 

25.5 
29.9 

341 
384 
42.4 
469 
51.3 

55-5 
59-7 



to 


2.9 




36 




4-3 




50 




5-7 




6.4 




7.0 




7-7 




8.4 




9.1 




9.8 



Distance 

from 
head-block 

to point 
of frog, ft. 



10.5 
13.0 

15.4 

17.9 
20.4 
22.9 

24.7 
27.2 
29.9 
32.4 

34-3 



Note. — These tables are for turn-outs from straight lines. The d'stances in turn- 
outs from curves remain also the same ; the curves cf the turn-outs and ordinates only 
var}'. 

They are arranged for stub-toe switches, or those where the head-block is at the toe, 
or further end, of the switch-rails or movmg bars. Where the head-block is at the heel, 
or nearest end, as in a spit or point switch, the distance from head-block to point of 
frog is obtained by taking the sum cf the figfures in the colun.as headed '^ Length of 



40 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

More care is necessary in placing cast frogs 
than rail-frogs, as the latter can be made to yield 
somewhat in lining up, so as to conform to the 
different tracks ; while the cast frogs require to 
be very nicely adjusted at first, or they are sure 
to cause trouble in. lining. 

Next in importance to the proper location of 
frogs is the curving of iron. This should be 
nicely done on all curves (as stated on a pre- 
vious page), but it is especially important that 
it be well done among frogs. The amount of 
curve the iron should receive can be readily as- 
certained tit the time the lines are drawn for 
placing the frogs. 

The guard-rail, placed opposite the frog, is 
frequently too short and the bend at the ends 
too abrupt. When guard rails are made of 
common track rail they should be of good 
length, and the bend much further from the end 
than is usual. A short guard-rail, with the ends 
bent at nearly right angles, is an abomination. 

switch-ra'l " and "Distance from head block," etc., as found in the tables. The 
switch rail in the latter case need not conform to that given in the table. 

The table for a gauge of 4 ft. V^, in. can be used for either of the gauges of 4 ft. oj^ 
in- and 4 ft. 10 in., by addmg for the former i ft. to the figures in the column of " Dis- 
tance fi-om head-block to point of frog"; for the latter, 2 ft. This will give nearly the 
exa':t distance for the proportion of frogs ordinarily used. 

The above tables are calculated by the formulae — 



D = 2 gm. S = ^(R. + T)2 — R2, where 
D = Distance from head-block to point of frog. 
^= gauge. VI = proportion cf frog. 
5 = hngth cf switch-rail. T = throw of switch-rail. 
R = radius cf lead. 
\A'henever the throw is different from that stated, the tables, cf course, will have to 
be altered. 



PLACING GUARD-RAILS--TIERGDS. 4 1 

It is impossible to keep it in place, as it is 
hacked and gouged by the flanges of wheels 
coming in contact with the ends and cutting out 
pieces of iron, and the fastenings (which are not 
always of a substantial character) soon give 
way, resulting in more or less damage. 

To place a guard-rail correctly, it is a good 
plan to measure two inches from the end of the 
gauge and make a mark there. Then place the 
opposite end of the gauge at the point of the 
frog, and spike the guard-rail to this mark, 
always measuring from the point of the frog 
and not from the rail opposite. This will an- 
swer as a general rule, yet there are some pecu- 
liar cases to which it would not apply so well ; 
if there is anything wrong in the adjustment, 
its cause may be ascertained by watching closely 
as trains are passing slowly over the frog. 
Sometimes the flangeway of frogs contains large 
quantities of chips and shavings that have been 
cut from the locomotive flanges vv^hile passing 
through the frog. This indicates something 
wrong and should be attended to at once. The 
cause can easily be discovered by close exami- 
neaion, and its removal in season may prevent 
accident. 

Tie-rods on split switch-rails should be secured 
in place by bolting them to the flanges or base of 
the rail. They are usually made to clasp the 
rail loosely — are driven on from the ends of the 



42 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

rails and left. In a short time they become 
loose, rattling and cla^ttering in a disagreeable 
manner as trains pass over them. They soon 
slip out of place, leaving a long portion of the 
switch-rails with nothing to prevent spreading, 
which sometimes happens in consequei:^ce. 

Other faults might be shown in the every-day 
practice of track-layers ; but it is deemed suffix 
cient to have called attention to the more im- 
portant points generally overlooked by them, 
and by stockholders and directors, who, above 
all others, are interested in the matter. It is 
now (1870) about forty j^ears since we com- 
menced building railroads in this country, and 
in that time we have built and put in operation 
upwards of 50,000 miles of road. Some of 
these roads are a credit to the builders and to 
the country, yet it must be admitted (however 
reluctantly) that our roads are not, as a whole, 
as substantially built as roads are in Europe. 
The main excuse offered for this is the want of 
capital. It is, however, a false economy to build 
railroads in this shiftless manner and undertake 
to keep them open for traffic. The heavy ex- 
pense of maintaining the permanent way in this 
country, as compared to that incurred on foreign 
roads, is ample proof of this. It v/ould seem 
that our railroad men, as a class (to use a com- 
mon expression), " fell into a groove '' years ago 
in regard to certain practices, and the majority 



REFORM /.y ROAD coxstruction; 43 

of them are there yet. A few, however, have 
left it, to their advantage and to the advantage 
of the public ; and present indications are that 
we are on the eve of a general reform in the 
construction and maintenance of railroads 
throughout the country. 



v\ v^ 



CHAPTER V. 

ON BALLASTING TRACK. 

Best Ballast — Dumping Gravel: It should never be 
DONE TILL Road-bed is Ready — Boulders, Roots, etc., 

SHOULD not be CARTED WITH GrAVEL — RAISING TrACK — 

Tamping — Dressing off Tracks — What to do when 
Material is Scarce — Sags. 

BALLAST. 

Railroads are forced to content themselves 
with the ballast obtainable on their line of road 
until they become rich enough to pay for a 
better. Some roads must employ the natural 
soil. If of clay, the only salvation lies in a per- 
fect system of drainage ; if of sand, by filling 
to the top of ties and shouldering out at least a 
foot and a half to keep the track in line ; if of 
prairie soil — black sand and loam — fill to top 
and slope to end of ties. With gravel use the 
same course. The best ballast is that which has 
the greatest elasticity and durabihty. I believe 
that mill (furnace) cinder broken fine has no 
superior. Besides being elastic, it is dry, clean, 
free from dust, contains no nourishment for 
vegetation, and permits water to pass off readily. 
Its freedom from weeds is a very great economy, 

44 



MATERIAL FOR BALLAST, 45 

a large proportion of the track work in summer 
being thus avoided ; while in winter the road- 
bed is warmer and clears itself of snow. I 
therefore recommend its use whenever obtain- 
able. Engine cinders from the yards, used like 
sand (fining to the top of the tie and shouldering 
out a foot or two), have the same good proper- 
ties to recommend them, but are less durable 
than furnace cinder, slag, gravel, or stone. Stone 
broken evenly, not larger than a cube that will 
pass through a two-and-a-half- inch ring, and 
gravel, cannot fail to make a perfect road-bed, if 
properly used ; but gravel is less durable than 
cinders, because more liable to be washed out. 
It is useless to prescribe the depth of ballast — 
economy must decide the question. The more 
the better ; but there should be at least a foot, 
to provide against heaving of track from frost. 
No ballast can be effective without proper 
drainage. When the foundation and ballast are 
broken stone, sand, and gravel, draining is pro- 
vided for by the nature of the prepared track- 
bed, but in all other cases careful ditching is 
the great requisite for keeping a good track. 



Gravel should never be dumped until the 
road-bed is in good condition to receive it 
without danger of its sliding down embank- 
ments, or being dumped into mud and mixed 



46 THE ROAD MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

up with clay and slush so as to render it worth- 
less as ballast. 

Before dumping ballast the road should be 
closely examined, and all spikes, bolts, nuts, 
washers, rails, chairs, ties, etc., etc., picked up. 
Track-layers should be particularly careful not 
to leave such property scattered about in 
ditches ; if it is not saved before ballasting, it is 
very likely to be lost. This subject has been 
spoken of before, but frequent cautioning on all 
matters connected with the saving of property 
can do no harm. 

In some gravel-pits there are a great many 
boulders, roots, stumps, etc. It is common to 
load these with the gravel, merely to get them 
out of the way of the workmen in the pit, and 
it often happens that this trash is dumped in a 
cut where there is much trouble to get rid of it. 
So much of the rubbish as cannot be put into 
the track (and none of it should be) is left in the 
ditch, where it must either be removed or 
allowed to remain and clog the water-course. 
Boulders, and all stones too large to be used as 
ballast, should be thrown to one side when the 
train is out of the pit. They will be found very 
useful for wash-outs, but they are not good for 
ballast when mixed with gravel. 

Raising track for ballasting is not always con- 
ducted with needful care, especially when rais- 
ing it to a considerable height. Frequently a 



RAISING TRACK FOR BALLASTING, 4/ 

joint is raised on one side of the track at a time ; 
if cast chairs are used, it is very sure to break 
off the lips, also to rack and twist the joints and 
put the whole track into disorder. This should 
be avoided as much as possible ; with a little 
care, track may be raised to any height required 
for ballasting without doing any damage. 

When the track is raised, and before filling 
with gravel, all ties should be put in their pro- 
per places, held snugly up to the rail, and the 
spikes carefully driven home ; otherwise gravel 
and small stones will work under between the 
rail and the tie. When ties are out of place, 
and the track is filled w^ith gravel, they are 
likely to remain so, much to the damage of the 
track, as has been shown. 

It is customary to tamp the ties their entire 
length ; but it is found to be bad practice to 
tamp as hard midway between the rails as at 
the ends of the ties and on the inner side of the 
rails. All track newly raised will settle more 
or less, and if the middle of the track is tamped 
hard it will cause it to rock and work out of 
line, as ballast will wash out from under the 
ends of ties when it remains hard and full in 
the centre. Such track will rock from side to 
side in a very disagreeable manner, and is some- 
times dangerous, as ties are frequently broken 
from this cause."^ 

* A first-class lifting track jack is a great labor-saving machine. 



48 THE ROAD MASTER'S ASSISTANT 

It is best always to leave the gravel a little 
slack in the centre ; not sufficiently so, however, 
to make a cavity for water to settle into, but so 
that the principal bearing will be mainly under 
the rails, or as near them as possible. With 
this manner of tamping the stability of the track 
v/ill be found much greater than when tamped 
hard in the middle. 

Filling up and dressing off track are usually 
done without rule, hardly any two men having 
the same way of doing them. It is sometim.es 
difficult to follow a given rule in dressing off, or 
to adopt any particular mode of filling up, owing 
to the lack of ballast. At the first raising it is 
not advisable to take much pains in finishing 
off, as the track will settle so as to require con- 
siderable surfacing in a short time, so that any 
extra finish it may have received will be spoiled 
and so much labor lost. The second time of 
going over it is the proper time to finish in good 
style. This is usually done by the section-men ; 
and it would be better to have section-men do 
all the ballasting, as they are likely to take more 
pains with it than those who never expect to 
see the track again after the ballasting is done. 

If there is an. over-supply of ballast, which is 
sometimes the case, all that cannot be used to 
advantage should be scraped into piles out of 
the wa}^, and saved for future use. It should 
never be allowed to lie in heaps and ridges 



FILLING IN BALLAST, 49 

along the ends of the ties, preventing the escape 
of water, as is frequently done. It is not advis- 
able to fill the track too full, on account of ballast 
being plenty, as it causes trouble when repair- 
ing in winter, especially in shimming, which 
operation will be discussed hereafter. 

In filling track on curves it is not well to slope 
the ballast from the middle of the track each 
way, because, the outside of the track being ele- 
vated, it would cause water to settle imder the 
track. It is better to fill the track so that the 
slope will commence at or near the ends of the 
ties on the outer side of the curves, so as to 
c^rry the water across the track toward the 
inner side. The slope on the upper and outer 
side must be shorter and more inclined, so as to 
carry the water from the ends of the ties, or 
perhaps a little to the outside of them, into the 
ditch. In short, the main object in view, in fill- 
ing up and dressing off track, should be, in all 
cases, to prevent the settling of water under 
the ties. 

Much damage is done by allowing trains to 
run over track before it is w^ell tamped up. 
When track is raised considerably, and only the 
joint-ties, and perhaps one or two intermediates, 
partly tamiped, a train running over it will bend 
the iron surface- wise, so that it is impossible to 
straighten it again without heating it ; there 
will be kinks in it after all is done when it has 



50 THE ROAD'MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

once been badly bent on the surface. With 
good management no train need pass over track 
until it is well tamped. It is an easy matter, at 
least, to have the track ready for all regular 
trains, and it is better to stop working or ir- 
regular trains than to allow them to run over 
track before it is really prepared for them. To 
some this caution may seem unnecessary, but 
there is much bad track made by the spoiling 
of the iron while ballasting. 

Some hints have been given on filling track 
when plenty of gravel is at hand. What follows 
will point out how the work should be done 
when there is a scarcity of that material. It is 
said that a good cook can prepare a very palat- 
able meal w^ith almost nothing to make it of, 
whereas a poor cook v/ill nearly breed a famine 
when there is plenty to eat. So with track- 
men : some will put a piece of road in good 
order, and keep it so wdth small allowance of 
ballast, which is ''the needful''; v/hile others, 
with abundance, Avill make but a sorry show. 
The practice Avith most track-men, when but a 
small quantity of gravel can be had, to put it all 
under the ties, leaving nothing to fill between 
them, is erroneous. For, however small the 
quantity of ballast, the track should not be 
raised so high as to require all the gravel under 
the ties, but a portion should be reserved to fill 
between the ties and at the ends. Let us 



TIES SHOULD HA VE A SOLID BEARING. 5 I 

examine a piece of track with little or no mate- 
rial between the ties, where the road-bed and 
the ballast are of a light, sand}^ nature. Some 
of the ties will, of course, have a solid bearing-, 
while others will hang loosely by the spikes, 
having no bearing at all except when the rail is 
deflected by a passing train ; as soon as the rail 
is relieved of its load it springs back to surface, 
taking with it the ties holding by the spikes. 
With this cavity under the ties the sand is forced 
out from under them by compressed air escap- 
ing as the tie is suddenly forced into its bearing. 
Each tie not sustained is thus continually work- 
ing its way into the road-bed, while those hav- 
ing a solid bearing are not so affected. Any one 
having doubts of the truth of this statement may 
be convinced of its correctness by sitting close 
to the track when a train is passing. He will 
notice that a jet of sand escapes from under 
every loose tie, forced out by the rush of air 
caused by the sudden settling of the tie into the 
cavity, literally/?/;;?//;/^ the ballast from under 
the track. There is no way of obviating this 
when the road-bed is not wide enough to pre- 
vent the ends of the ties projecting over the 
slope, which is often the case on unfinished 
roads and not unfrequently on roads considered 
finished. When the road-bed is of ample width, 
fill the track (as before stated) between and at 
the ends of the ties, so as to exclude air and 



52 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

water as much as possible. Mud or clay, from 
the ditches at the side of the track, is preferable 
to air for ballast ; for if track is well filled with 
even a poor material it will keep in order much 
longer than with an insufficient quantity of good 
gravel, with none between the ties. 

The track is often raised too high for the 
amount of ballast at hand, owing to the desire 
of the track-men to put the track on true grade, 
leaving no sags. This is very desirable, but it 
is far better to leave sags and have ballast enough 
to fill the track properly than to make a true 
grade and leave the track naked. Of course a 
short sag looks bad, and we can hardly blame 
a track-man for taking it up, even with scarcity 
of ballast ; but stability should not be sacrificed 
to appearances. How often do we see a piece 
of track at the foot of a steep grade, on a high 
embankment, piked tip as far as possible, with all 
available material put under it, and the ends of 
the ties projecting over the slope of the embank- 
ment, squirting ballast as every train passes, and 
requiring the constant attention of the section- 
men to keep it in anything like a safe condition ; 
when, by leaving a slight sag, it might be kept 
in tolerable running order with half the labor 
that is required in its present misplaced eleva- 
tion. It is not well to be too particular in bring- 
ing track up to a true grade on new roads, as 
the road-bed will settle, and on heavy fills it 



ALLOWANCE FOR SETTLING. 53 

Will require raising several times before it will 
remain up to grade. It is impossible to keep 
track in line when it all lies above the ballast, 
with nothing to steady it and keep it in place. 



CHAPTER VI. 

ELEVATION OF CURVES, 

Subject of Elevation of the Outer Rail little under- 
stood — Important to determine the Rate of Speed 

FOR WHICH the ElEVATION SHOULD BE CALCULATED — NO 

Invariable Rule can be adopted— Degree of Curves. 

The subject of the elevation of the outer rail 
on the railroads of the United States is one little 
understood, and there is less uniformity in the 
systems employed than in those of any other 
work connected with track. Ask ninety-nine 
men out of a hundred — managers, superinten- 
dents, engineers, road-masters, and section-fore- 
men — for their rules for the elevation of curves 
on their roads, and the majority will reply that 
they have no rule. I affirm that many have not 
only no rule, but that the subject has never 
been considered by them at all. The superin- 
tendents in charge of track leave it to the road- 
masters, the road-masters to the track-foremen, 
so that on nearly every road in the country 
there is as much variety in the elevation of 
curves as there are sections on any of the roads. 
It is not unusual to find on first-class roads an 
elevation of the outer rail of one and one-half 
inches to the degree of a curve — that is, to a 
radius of 5,730 feet ; and in that proportion for 

54 



ELEVATION OF OUTER RAIL ON CURVES, 55 

greater curves, sometimes with and sometimes 
without uniformity — in lighter curves even two 
or three inches on a one-degree curve. It is a 
shame to our American roads — that is, to many 
of them — that the level is entirely ignored upon 
them. In consequence of this comes the oscil- 
lation so disagreeable to passengers and damag- 
ing to both rolling stock and track to an incal- 
culable extent. After determining upon a uni- 
form system of elevation, it becomes a matter 
of importance to decide upon the speed for 
which the elevation should be calculated. To 
do this w^isely we must take into consideration 
the speed of the various trains running over the 
road. As a rule, we have freight trains limited 
to a speed of 15 miles per hour,, and we have 
passenger trains at a rate of from 35 to 40 miles 
per hour, or an average of 31 or 32 miles per 
hour, including stops, and sometimes, w^hen be- 
hind time, at a rate of from 50 to 60 miles per 
hour. With such disparity of speed, and Avith 
but one track, it becomes of vital importance to 
decide upon the question of elevation in its 
bearings upon the points both of economy and 
safety. Upon a road having heavy grades and 
curves the question is a more serious one than 
on lines 0/ level grades and similar curves. As 
the freight trains are from three to five times 
as numerous as the passenger trains, it is im- 
portant that the elevation of the outer rail 



56 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

should be calculated somewhat in consideration 
of their speed. If the elevation is made for the 
full measure of the highest speed of passenger 
trains, which run only one-fourth as often as the 
freights, may we not have it so great that the 
freights will be in danger of running off on the 
inside of the curve ? Again, since the elevation 
of the outer rail has a tendency to retard the 
progress of the train, may we not by using too 
much elevation cause such a diminution in the 
power of the engine as to shorten up the train 
and haul fewer cars? This is not only theore- 
tically but practically the case ; and should the 
elevations be made for 45 miles per hour, instead 
of 35, it would probably cause a dropping of a 
car in each train, and result in the loss of at 
least one train per day. Over each division 
this would imply a loss of at least $65 per train 
per day ; for four divisions $260 per day, or 
*$ioo,ooo per annum. It is, therefore, essential 
to consider w^hether it is not wise to equalize 
the elevations of the outer rail so as to consideT 
economy and safety for the freight trains also. 
To this end I have made an average in the ele- 
vation, so as to avoid, as far as possible, the 
danger from too great an elevation for the low 
speed of freight trains and the too slight eleva- 
tion for passenger trains. This average I have 
found to be three-quarters of an inch for broad- 
gauge (6 ft.) and half an inch for standard-gauge 



ELEVA TION AS AFFECTED B Y SPEED. 5 / 

(4 ft. 8^ in.) roads for each degree, for 35 miles 
per hour ; that is, allowing a speed of fifty miles 
per hour for passenger trains and fifteen for 
freight trains. 

The tables given in this book (pages 177 to 
180) for the elevation of curves cover most of 
the gauges in use in this country. 

To lay down an invariable rule as to how 
many inches or fractions of an inch should be 
used to a degree of curve or to a given radius 
is manifestly impossible. A good, practical, 
tested rule for gauges of 4 ft. 8^ in. or 4 ft. 
95^ in. on all the main thoroughfares of the 
country, with single or double track, is half an 
inch to the degree ; for a 6-feet gauge, three- 
quarters of an inch — this for an average of 35 
miles per hour. It is plain that if one track of 
a two or two of a four-track railroad were set 
apart for passenger traffic, and the other track or 
tracks set apart for freight business, a uniform 
rule could be adopted, provided that a uniform 
speed w^as also prescribed for each class of trains 
on their respective tracks. The New York Cen- 
tral and Hudson River Railroad, for instance, 
could elevate the curves of one or two tracks 
for passenger traffic and the others for freight. 
The question then to determine would be, How 
fast shall the passenger trains run ? This decid- 
ed, there would be no trouble, unless in case of 
damage to the passenger tracks, when it would 



58 



THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 



be found that the freight tracks would 



be 



unsuited to a high rate of speed ; and the re- 
verse might occur, and the freight train would 
have to be reduced one or two cars on account 
of elevation. Nothing but keen judgment and 
close observation can determine the elevations 
so as to bring about the most economical result 
consistent with safety. 



DEGREE OF CURVES. 

It may be desirable for a track-man to find 
the degree or radius of a curve. Stretch taut 
a fifty-feet tape-line on the inner side of the 
rail, and measure the perpendicular distance 
(which is the *' middle ordinate '') from the centre 
of the tape-line to the inner edge of the rail. 
The radius and degree of the curve correspond- 
ing to this middle ordinate may then be found 
in the following table : 



Degree. 


Radius in feet. 


Middle ordi- 
nate in inches. 


Degree. 


Radius in feet. 


Middle ordi- 
nate in inches. 


30' 


11,460 


.22 


II'^ 


522 


7.20 


I^ 


5,730 


.66 


12^ 


478 


7.87 


29 


2,865 


1.32 


13" 


442 


8.51 


3° 


1,910 


1.97 


14^^ 


410 


9.17 


4° 


1,433 


2.63 


IS'' 


383 


9.80 


5° 


1,146 


3.28 


16^ 


359 


10.49 


6° 


955 


3.94 


17- 


338 


II. II 


7" 


819 


4.57 


iS° 


320 


11.78 


8° 


717 


5.24 


19- 


303 


12.41 


9" 


637 


5.89 


20"^, 


288 


i3«o6 


10^ 


574 


6.54 









TO FIND THE RADIUS OF A CURVE, 59 

Railroad curves are spoken of as being of a 
certain ** degree of curvature " or of a certain 
^'radius." Tiie radii corresponding to the 
various degrees ordinarily met with may be 
found in preceding tables.. To ascertain the 
radius corresponding to any degree : Divide 
5,730 (the radius ot a i° curve) by the degree 
of the curve under consideration. For ex- 
ample : 

Radius of a 5° curve=:-^-^^= 1,146. 

BENDING RAILS. 

A table of middle ordinates for bending rails 
to be laid on curves will be found immediately 
after the tables for the elevation of the outer 
rail, on page 170. 



CHAPTER VIL 

TRACK REPAIRS. 

Methods Unchanged for a Quarter of a Century — Rou- 
tine Ideas — Cheap Section-masters not Desirable — 
Work on a New Road — Joint-ties — Lining Track : in 
Frosty Localities — Clearing Out Ditches and Cul- 
verts: their Proper Dimensions — Kinks in Rails — Im- 
portance of True Gauge — Trestle-work and Bridges 
should be planked for Foot Passengers. 

The present age is one of improvement, and 
although on many roads the subject of track 
repairs may not have kept pace generally with 
other arts, yet the whole country is waking up 
to the importance of improvement in men, ma- 
terial, and discipline. 

Many railroad managers are apt to pursue an 
unwise policy in the appointment of track men, 
and, influenced by a false economy, to employ 
men of little experience, as they can be had for 
less money. It is a practice with many com- 
panies to cut down the wages of section-masters 
at every favorable opportunity, so that all the 
keen, wide-awake men, who have seen service, 

will not '^ stand the pressure,'' but leave for bet- 

60 



CHEAP SECTION-MASTERS, 6 1 

ter-paying situations ; and, as there are plenty 
of incompetent men willing to take their places 
at the reduced wages, the managers consider 
that they are making money by the change. 
They argue that "" any man who has worked on 
track repairs a little while can take care of a 
section, and we are not going to pay a man 
fifty or sixty dollars a month when we can. get 
the work done for half that sum." 

This is a great mistake. Half-price men are 
the most expensive that can be employed. The 
property in the care of a section-master has cost 
a great deal of money, and, if not properly cared 
for, wears out rapidly. A section-master who 
understands his business can save more money 
for the company than his wages amount to. 
Indeed, an incompetent foreman of a section 
will waste more than would pay a dozen good 
men. The best are not too good, and a really 
good one is cheap at any price, while a poor one 
is so expensive that no company can afford to 
employ him. There are many matters of im- 
portance connected with track repairs that are 
not generally understood, and it is for the in- 
terest of the railroad community to give the 
whole subject careful consideration ; to see 
henceforth that track-repairing is put into the 
hands of none but capable men, who will im- 
prove its methods, and carry into their work a 
spirit of thoroughness and efficiency. 



62 THE ROAD-MASTERS ASSISTANT. 

The first work of the section-master, on tak- 
ing charge of a section on a new road, is to undo 
work that lias been improperly done by the 
track-layers. If the track has been laid accord- 
ing to the suggestions in a former chapter, it 
will need but little overhauling ; but there is 
generally more or less work of this kind to be 
done. Suppose the track to have been bal- 
lasted. The work now will be to take out sags 
and put the track in first-rate surface. Great 
care should be exercised in surfacing, and on 
straight line it should be perfectly level. It 
should be tamped as uniformly as possible, and, 
as before mentioned, a little slack in the middle. 
Now is the time to attend to this, as it is im- 
portant to keep track level in its cross-section ; 
and if hard-tamped in the middle, it is impossi- 
ble to keep it so. The joint-tie should always 
be the last one tamped. This is contrary to the 
ordinary practice, but a little reflection will 
prove it to be the true w^ay. It is an easy mat- 
ter to raise a tie by tamping it with bars, in 
good ballast, and if the side ties are tamped 
after the joint it will raise the joint-tie so that it 
will be loose, hanging by the spikes to the rail. 
If but one side-tie is tamped after the joint, it 
will cause a cocked joint, exposing the end of 
one rail, on each side of the track, to severe 
pounding by passing trains. By taking the 
joint-tie in hand last, it can be raised a trifle by 



KEEPING TRACK IN LINE, 63 

hard-tamping ; and the joint will then nave a 
solid support, and not bear too much on the 
side-ties. It is well known that the joint-tie is 
more likely to settle than any other ; and miles 
of track can be found on some roads without a 
solid joint in the whole distance, owing to the 
ordinary practice of tamping the joint first. Of 
course these loose joint-ties cause iron to wear 
rapidly, and are alsqfinjurious to rolling stock. 

LINING TRACK. 

The importance of having track in good line 
must always be kept in view. Many suppose 
that after track is once well lined it needs no 
further attention; it is, however, constantly 
working out of line from various causes. Now, 
line is of as much importance as surface ; for if a 
track is not in surface it is impossible to keep it 
in line. There is nothing more disagreeable to 
passengers and train-men than the sudden jerk- 
ing of cars from side to side, caused by track 
being out of line ; not only is it disagreeable, 
but the iron is badly worn in consequence, with 
a corresponding v/ear to cars, etc. When track 
is well ballasted it will remain in line much bet- 
ter than when insufficiently ballasted. When 
one side of the track has settled somewhat, it 
will work out of line by the sudden shocks im- 
parted to the rails by the lateral motion of car- 
trucks, and outside- connected freight-engines, 



64 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

when laboring hard, disturb the line conside- 
rably. But the chief cause of track getting out 
of line is the raising of it when surfacing. 
Placing a bar under the end of the tie, when 
raising track, has a tendency to pull it toward 
the operator, although it be but a trifle. Per- 
haps the next joint will need raising on the 
opposite side, and thus one joint is pulled out 
of line a trifle in one direction, w^hile at the next 
it is pulled in the opposite direction, leaving it 
zigzag. Track should always be put in line 
after surfacing, for the above reason. The line 
may not be greatly disturbed by one surfacing ; 
yet as track-men are constantly going over the 
road picking up low joints, and as some joints 
require frequent raising, the track soon gets 
badly out of line and should be attended to. It 
is better to line after surfacing, and before filling 
in the ballast, as the track is easily moved then ; 
and, when it is put in place and the ballast filled 
in afterward, it will the better keep in line. In 
frosty localities, where the ballast and road-bed 
remain frozen for a considerable time, it is all- 
important to give track a thorough lining at, and 
to keep it in surface before, the commencement 
of cold weather ; othervv^ise it must remain out 
of line for many months, during which time the 
iron will have worn considerably, and there will 
be a heavy addition to the expense of car re- 
pairs in consequence. 



CLOGGED DITCHES AND CULVERTS, 65 

DITCHES, CULVERTS, ETC. 

Section-men will find more or less gravel 
remaining in ditches, culverts, etc., after bal- 
lasting, frequently obstructing the passage of 
water. All this should be removed and all 
water-courses put in good order, as it is impos- 
sible to keep track in good surface when water 
is allowed to soak through the road-bed, as is 
frequently the case. In narrow cuts, where 
there is but a slight descent for the passage of 
water, a very little gravel or rubbish will cause 
water to penetrate the road-bed, and much labor 
is wasted in surfacing that might be saved by a 
very little labor in the ditches. It is a common 
thing to see a considerable gang of men em- 
ployed day after day with tamping-bars, surfac- 
ing in some cut, while the ditches are half filled 
with water and rubbish ; what little gravel 
there is in the track, mixed with wet clay, being 
made into mortar by the use of the tamping-bars. 
It will often be found that a large quantity of 
gravel has slid down the embankment and 
lodged in the mouth of a culvert, hidden by 
grass and weeds. In cases of high water, chips, 
small sticks, and all manner of floating trash, by 
settling in the gravel at the mouth of the cul- 
vert, soon form a place of lodgment for larger 
floating substances. In this way the culvert is 
completely dammed up and embankments are 



66 THE ROAD-MASTER\S ASSISTANT, 

frequently injured, or completely washed away, 
when a little attention would have prevented 
any damage. A stone, a fragment of wood, or 
any other obstruction lying in a ditch or small 
culvert is not in itself any great injury to the 
road, but it will collect sufficient rubt)ish in a 
short time to occasion mischief A block of, 
wood falling from a locomotive tender and i^oll- 
ing into the ditch, a strip of board, fence sta-ke, 
or other obstructive substance, lodging across 
the mouth of a culvert, has often been the cause 
of damage which has cost hundreds of dollars 
to repair. It is a good plan to clear all rubbish 
out of small streams for a considerable distance 
above the culvert ; and not only from the bed 
of the stream, but for a considerable distance 
on either side, where there is any possibility of 
the overflowing of the banks. Small streams 
(very small ones) are more dangerous than large 
ones. A stream of tolerable size is usually 
provided with ample room for free passage at 
bridges, and the water in it runs with sufficient 
force to prevent any floating substance lodging 
so as to cause mischief. Of course all logs or 
trees lodging against piers or abutments should 
be cleared away, and this matter is generally 
attended to ; while a few leaves and small sticks 
lodged in a small culvert, which are really more 
dangerous, are likely to remain unnoticed. 
Section-masters are too apt to think that atten- 



CULVERTS OFTEN TOO SMALL. 6/ 

tion to such matters is out of their line of duty, 
and, owing to their anxiety to have '' the best 
riding section on the road/' consider it to their 
disadvantage to have any labor performed ex- 
cept on the track ; but it is clear that, in this 
view of their obligations, they lose sight of the 
interest of the company. 

With respect to culverts, it may be well to 
say here that engineers are often at fault in esti- 
mating their proper dimensions. Culverts are 
often staked out in a dry season of the year, and 
the engineer is apt to be deceived as to the 
quantity of water that may flow into them at 
other seasons or in case of a freshet. In other 
cases the ground is frozen and covered with 
snow, and a ravine is crossed by an embank- 
ment, no culvert being considered necessary ; 
then, as the ground thaws out, a considerable 
stream makes its appearance, which must force 
a passage, if one is not provided, through the 
embankment. It costs more to build a large 
culvert than a small, but when to the cost of 
the small one is added that of getting an engine 
and a train of cars out of the mud, repairs to 
engine, cars, track, etc., to say nothing of the 
hindrance to other trains, and possible loss of 
life, the increased prime cost of the larger cul- 
vert is more than counterbalanced. In case of 
doubt as to the size of culvert needed, it is best 
alwa3^s to take the safe course and be sure that 



68 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

it is large enough. It is certain that an immense 
amount of property is destroyed and many lives 
lost every year from a lack of foresight, and yet 
accidents from it are generally looked upon as 
unavoidable, and no one is blamed. 

As before stated, the section-master will find 
much to do in putting to rights what has been 
neglected by the track-layers. Perhaps a few 
rails have been laid with '' kinks '' in them, the 
result of bad handling. If an}^ such are found, 
they should be removed and replaced by straight 
ones ; or, if there is no iron to use in their place, 
they may be taken out and straightened with the 
chain, lever, and sledge (but much better with 
the jim-crow, figured on page i6o). If they are so 
badly kinked as to require heating to straighten 
them, a fire may be built at a convenient place, 
and the rails heated on the spot, without taking 
them to the shop for that purpose. With this 
treatment iron will last much longer than if 
allowed to remain out of shape. Many joints 
v/ill be found badly spiked, displaced, or twisted 
out of shape in ballasting, so that the ends of 
the rails do not meet in good line ; and if these 
are allowed to remain the iron will soon be 
spoiled. The spikes should be drawn, and all 
such joints spiked over again. The joint-ties 
which are out of place, so that the meeting of 
the rails is over one side of the tie instead of 
over the centre, should be at once adjusted. 



CORRECTING GAUGE^TRESTLE-WORK, 69 

Although it requires considerable labor to do 
this, it pays/^ 

On inspecting track it will be often found that 
the gauge side will be too wide in some places 
and too narrow in others ; if the deviation is not 
very slight, it is best to draw the spikes and 
spike to a true gauge. Some of the evils of this 
inaccuracy of gauge have been explained in a 
previous chapter; but as the matter is an im- 
portant one and much overlooked, it is proper 
to call attention to it here for the good of the 
section-master and the interest of the company. 

The section-master should thoroughly ex- 
amine all trestle-work and bridges, and see that 
the hints here given to track-layers have been 
acted upon. However carefully the work may 
have been done, it is possible that some impor- 
tant matter may have been overlooked. The 
bridge carpenters may have neglected to secure 
the stringers, so as to prevent their moving out 
of place, leaving this work for the track-layers, 
who in turn may have overlooked the matter or 
left it for the section-men to attend to ; as they 
are the last men on the ground, to them belongs 
the duty of making good the shortcomings of 
those who have gone before. Perhaps the cross- 
ties have not been secured so that they will not 

* It is my experience that no contractor ever laid a track or ballasted it as it 
should be, and, therefore, my deliberate judgment is that the company always 
should lay its own track and ballast it, and that for this purpose none but the 
most careful and experienced men should ever be employed, — C. L. 



70 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

jar out of place. This should be done in a sub- 
stantial manner, and, on bridges where there is 
much crossing on foot, planks or boards should 
be nailed or spiked across the ties, so as to form 
a safe footway. It is impossible to prevent 
people crossing bridges, and, this being the 
case, it is better to make the passage safe, not 
only for the general convenience and safety, but 
for the convenience of track-men themselves. 
There are many bridges thrown over dangerous 
streams, with no way for pedestrians to cross 
except by stepping from timber to timber, where 
to fall through would be certain death, and, if 
caught by a train, escape would be impossible. 
Many of these bridges are so constructed that 
there is no room for a person to stand in safety 
while a train is passing, even were the fastenings 
secure, and even with plenty of room timid per- 
sons would incur imminent danger. In fact, 
hundreds of persons have met their death in 
this way ; and as a notice at the end of the 
bridge prohibiting people from crossing amounts 
to nothing, it is best for the section-master to 
provide a safe foot-way, except on such bridges 
as require a guard night and day to prevent 
persons walking over." 

* Notices should always be erected at each end of dangerous bridges, warn- 
ing the public. This will not only be performing a duty which will relieve re- 
sponsibility, but possibly save the life of some ignorant person.— C. L. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

DRAWING SPIKES— SHIMMING. 

Waste in Spike-drawing— Claw-bars— The Bull's-foot— 
Spike-drawing in Winter— Loss by Carelessness— Shim- 
ming : ITS Advantages— Often Badly Done— Shims often 
Ill-made and of Bad Material— Consequences — Shim- 
ming IN Frosty Weather — How to Manage It— Tamping 
—Thick Shims should be Spiked to Ties— Machine-made 
Shims— Shimming under Ties, or upon Culverts, Tres- 
tle-work, ETC. — What comes of Shims Working Out — 
Road-crossings — Wood-piles. 

DRAWING SPIKES. 

The various operations connected with track 
repairs necessitate the drawing of a great man)^ 
spikes. A great many tons of spikes are yearly 
wasted by carelessness in drav/ing and by bad 
handling afterwards. As claw-bars are usually 
made, it is impossible to draw a spike without 
spoiling it for future use. The claws should be 
so shaped as to take no hold of the point of the 
head, otherwise the head is either broken entirely 
off or is bent so as to become unfit for use. When 
the claws are made properly all the force applied 
to the spike in drawing it will come in a line 
with the body of the spike, so that it can be 



'J2 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

drawn straight. Some spikes are of bad shape 
to draw in good condition for future use, but 
with a claw-bar ot the proper form, and care in 
drawing, a great many spikes can be saved. 

There are a good many kinds of claw-bars, 
some of which work well ; and there are several 
kinds of patent bars for pulling spikes which are 
well spoken of, but for some reason they have 
not yet come into general use ; and probably 
the old style of " bulFs-foot'J claw is as good as 
any, if properly made."^ It is, however, a difficult 
job to make a good claw-bar; but as it is an 
implement which is in almost constant use, it 
vshould be rightly made and used. Even with a 
good claw-bar, when not handled rightly, spikes 
are often broken, bent, and twisted needlessly. 
A great many spikes are broken and destroyed 
by attempting to draw them in winter when the 
ties are frozen solid, and when they cannot be 
drawn by any claw-bar without breaking. This 
is one instance of a vast amount of labor per- 
formed by repair-men that results in no good to 
the track or profit to the company, but is rather 
an injury than a benefit, not only wasting time 
and labor, but destroying property in place of 
saving it or keeping it from wear. Some track- 
men have a great desire to be busy, especially 
about train-time, and they frequently draw spikes 

* The best form of claw-bar is given on page 159, together with other tools 
of the most approved patterns iji use on the best-managed roads. — C. L. 



DRAWING SPIKES, 73 

for shimming when it is not necessary, as in 
severe cold weather, when not one spike in ten 
can be drawn without breaking. Of course those 
drawn must be replaced with new ones, which 
are expensive. But this is not all ; for not only 
spikes, but chairs, bolts, etc., and often bars, ham- 
mers, and other tools, are broken by careless use 
in frosty weather, so that it would be better for 
the company to pay the men for sitting by the 
fire than to have this kind of work done at such 
times. Those who have not given the subject 
special attention would be surprised at the 
amount of money that can be saved by exercis- 
ing more care in this seemingly unimportant 
matter. There are other ways of destroying 
this kind of property, and it is singular that 
such wasteful practices are allowed to such an 
extent as they are. It is frequently considered 
too much trouble to draw spikes, and they are 
driven into the tie out of the way, being ham- 
mered until the heads break off, when one more 
blow sinks it out of sight. This operation is 
sometimes performed to such an extent that a 
half-dozen or more spikes are jammed into a 
single tie, resulting in the loss of so many spikes 
and the injury of the tie. Sometimes a chisel- 
pointed crowbar is used to force spikes from the 
rail. By placing the bar perpendicularly and 
using the rail as a fulcrum, the spike is bent 
sufficiently to allow the removal of the rail, Avhen 



74 THE ROAD MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

shifting iron ; when, afterwards, another rail is 
put in its place, the spikes are driven up to the 
rail and so left. Old hands frequently do this, 
and there are miles of track served in this man- 
ner, with only a portion of the spikes taking any 
hold of the rail. Track left in this condition is 
not safe. The matter is well worthy the atten- 
tion of railroad managers ; it is strange that it 
should be so generally overlooked. 

SHIMMING THE TRACK. 

In winter, when ballast is so frozen that track 
cannot be surfaced by tamping, it is done by 
shimming. This is often performed in a shiftless 
manner, and many serious accidents have hap- 
pened in consequence. If shimming is well 
done, it is one of the nicest and most important 
operations connected with track repairs. It pre- 
vents wear of iron and rolling stock to a greater 
extent than any other operation consuming the 
same amount of labor. 

Some section-men make shims out of blocks 
of wood that have fallen from the tender, or 
have been thrown overboard by firemen when 
too large for their use ; sometimes they split off 
a piece from the end of a tie, make a Avedge 
with a dull hatchet, drive it under the rail, and 
cobble it up in such a manner that it will roll 
and rack frightfully under a passing train. 
Track is sometimes raised on shims of con- 



SHIMMING TRACK. 75 

siderable thickness, so that the spikes scarcely 
enter the tie, and after a few trains have passed 
the spikes will not touch the rail, as every vi- 
bration of the rail forces the spike from it, 
where it remains. This is -very unsafe. These 
shims frequently get loose and work out from 
under the rail, and a great deal of iron is ruined 
by being bent in the surface from this cause. 
Rails may often be found without support for 
several feet, the shims having worked out and 
the rail so bent that it cannot be straightened 
without heating. It is not uncommon to see 
track-men go along the road, pick up the shims 
that have worked out, and slip them under 
the rail, when, if the rail has been sufficiently 
sprung in the surface, they may hold it for a 
short time ; but they will soon work out again, 
and then it may be necessary to hew off a little 
before they will go under the rail, owing to its 
being bent. In this manner track that has been 
raised on shims three inches thick will soon 
come down to half that thickness. This kind 
of work is practised to a far greater extent than 
is generally supposed, and there is hardly any 
road-master but can find some bad shimming on 
his road, if he closely examines it. 

Much labor is wasted, when frost has left or 
is leaving the track at the close of the winter, 
in removing shims that should be left under the 
rail. Of course shimming is rendered neces- 



76 THE ROAD-MAS TER'S ASSISTANT. 

sary by track being thrown or heaved out of 
surface by the action of frost, and when the 
frost leaves it is necessary to remove the shims. 
In fact, this should be a busy time for section- 
men, where much shimming has been done, as it 
is often dangerous to let shims remain after the 
track has settled to its bearing when the frost 
is fairly out. It was formerly the practice on 
all roads to shim only when the track could not 
be tamped on account of frost ; but now it is the 
custom on some roads to shim in summer, when 
it requires but slight raising to put the track in 
good surface. This is a bad plan and should 
never be practised on any road. 

When a shim of considerable thickness is re- 
quired, it should be spiked to the tie and other 
spikes driven through it, in the manner of spik- 
ing when no shim is used ; otherwise the track 
may spread and cause mischief, especially on 
curves. Shims should be prepared by machinery, 
of hard w^ood, and of various thicknesses, bored 
for the spikes, and when used the tie should be 
adzed off smoothly, so that the shim may have a 
good bearing. Ties that have been in the track 
for a considerable time will be found to be 
grooved under the rail, and, unless the groove 
is adzed out, the shim will break, and the por- 
tion under the rail will settle into the groove 
and materially alter the surface of the track. 
When track-men are obliged to furnish their 



MACHINE MADE SHIMS, 7/ 

own shims they make them out of any material 
they get hold of, sometimes out of a pine board 
knocked off the fence, or a block cut from a 
cedar fence-post, or something else which is 
worthless for the purpose. It is for the interest 
of railroad companies to furnish shims ready for 
use and see that they are properly used. 

Joints are often shimmed in winter when they 
do not really need it, for a joint may be con- 
siderably down and at the same time the ends 
of the rails lie perfectly solid in the chairs. In 
such cases it is better not to disturb it in frosty 
weather, as the iron is not subjected to unusual 
wear and the loss from breakage will overbalance 
any benefit that can be derived from shimming. 

In regard to making shims by machinery, no 
expensive apparatus is necessary, as any ordi- 
nary car or repair shop is furnished with all 
needful appliances for making shims to good 
advantage, and one man can make more shims 
and better ones in a day, in an ordinary repair- 
shop, than a whole gang of section-men can 
hew and hack out in twice that time. Good 
hard timber can readily be sawed into shims of 
various thicknesses and packed into boxes to be 
sent where they are needed. Where many 
shims are used it will pay to rig a boring appa- 
ratus especially for that purpose. This can be 
done with very little expense in any shop by 
arranging two bits of the proper size in position 



y8 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

to bore both holes at one operation. It is best 
to bore the blocks before sawing them into 
shims. New roads which have not got their 
shops in operation, or short lines which have 
no extensive shops affording facilities for mak- 
ing shims, will find it good economy to have 
them made at some private shop. 

It might be thought that sufficient has been 
said about shimming, but there is room for a 
few further remarks on the subject, especially 
on shimming under ties, on open culverts, trestle- 
work, etc. Blocks, or shims, of several inches 
in thickness are frequently used in such places, 
and, as they are out of sight, they frequently 
work out, and remain out a long time before it 
is discovered. In all such places shims should 
be nailed or spiked to the stringer. It may be 
said that any one would know that ; but who- 
ever will get on a locomotive and ride over 
some roads will notice that the engine generally 
makes a lurch at every culvert or cattle-pass it 
comes to ; this will be found, in many cases, to 
be owing to the shims being displaced under a 
portion of the ties. Enginemen on some roads 
can tell on a dark night exactly where they are, 
without taking notice of surrounding objects, 
by a certain rolling or pitching motion of the 
engine when passing over certain cattle-guards 
or culverts. The shims may after a time be re- 
placed, but while they are out the rails become 



ACTION OP FROST. 79 

bent in the surface, and no amount of wedging 
or shimming will straighten them afterwards. 
There are roads of considerable length where 
it would be a difficult matter to find a straight 
rail on a cattle-guard or open culvert ; and this 
is owing mainly to shims working out from 
under the ties, or from under the ends of rail- 
plates when no cross ties are used. 

At other times the rail becomes bent by frost 
heaving the track at each end of the culvert, 
carrying the soil up and the ties or rail-plate 
with it, leaving the rails with no support for the 
width of the culvert or cattle-guard ; the rails 
must then, of course, settle under the weight of 
passing trains until they reach their former 
bearing. Track is not unfrequently raised gra- 
dually several inches by the action of frost, 
leaving the iron the same distance above its 
bearing unless it is shimmed. 

Planks at road- crossings are frequently raised 
by frost, so as to be caught by the pilot and 
cause more or less damage. Sometimes these 
planks are so raised that they become grooved 
and scraped by bolts hanging from the pilot or 
from brake beams, and no notice is taken of it 
until a plank becomes loose, and then comes 
mischief. These planks should be watched and 
kept in a safe condition by taking them up and 
picking away from between the ties the frozen 
ballast, which is usually the cause of the plank's 



So THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

being disturbed. It is obvious that if the ties 
rise with the plank there can be no danger ; but 
when the planks r.re raised by the expansion or 
heaving of the ballast between the ties, so as to 
draw the spikes from the ties, or the spike- 
heads through the plank, it then becomes dan- 
gerous and should be attended to. 

Wood-piles are sometimes tipped over upon 
the track by the action of frost in the spring of 
the year, as it is leaving the ground. In winter 
long piles of wood are often placed as near the 
track as possible, leaving barely room for the 
safe passage of trains ; when a thaw commences 
it may go on more quickly on the side next the 
track, in which case the top of the pile is liable 
to be thrown so near the track as to be danger- 
ous. When a wood-pile is seen to be settling 
towards the track it should not be zvatched too 
long before taking measures to prevent it from 
falling. Wood should not be piled nearer than 
six feet from the rail, nor should an3^thing be 
built or placed nearer than this distance. 



CHAPTER IX. 

FROGS AND SWITCHES. 

Selection of Frogs and Switches— Crossing-frogs — 
Bent Switch-rods — The Throw of Switches— Connect- 
ing-rods — Frogs : Cast steel Plate and Rail Frogs — 
Fastening Guard-rails — Short Guard-rails — Useless 
Tinkering. 

One of the first considerations in building- a 
road is the selection of frogs and switches, for 
upon this may depend the life of many passen- 
gers and the salvation or destruction of much 
property. It therefore behooves the engineer 
to provide the operators of the road with no- 
thing that does not merit the title of '' first 
class." 

I give my opinion upon both of these impor- 
tant matters without bias of any kind, but as 
the result of careful study and long experience. 

As a general principle, I should say that no 
frog should be adopted which requires the cut- 
ting or scoring of the frog-timbers. This, as a 
general rule, would set aside all but rail-frogs. 
Nevertheless, I must say that of all the frogs 

8z 



82 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

I have ever used and seen used on railroads the 
Mansfield frog bears the best reputation for 
wear and has no superior in elasticity. 

No frog should be used, even if a rail-frog, 
the merit of which is to take the wheels over 
on their flanges by a lifting apparatus or incline 
in the throat. The principle is wrong and un- 
safe. Cast frogs, in these days, if possible, 
should be dispensed with. 

I recommend as best the '' steel-rail frog,'' 
with no plates underneath, but securely fastened 
by lugs and bolts, and guarded by rail -brace 
with reversible wing-rails, and " the spring-rail 
frog." The latter has the merit of lasting 
longer than any other kind of rail-frog, on ac- 
count of the unbroken bearing the wheel has 
upon the point of frog and wing at the same 
time. Frog patents are numerous, but few have 
any value ; the principle of nearly all has been 
known and used for many years, and their de- 
fects thoroughly shown. 

The selection of switches is a vital matter. 
Many roads, some of the first in this country, 
still adhere to the old stub switch, claiming 
that it is the safest ; while it is well known that 
a train cannot run through it without derail- 
ment. 

The roads that use this switch universally are 
in the dark age of railroad management. In 
England the standard switch is the split or point 



VARIETIES OF SWITCHES, 83 

switch, and there can be no question but that it 
is the first in value. 

Captain Tyler, late Chief Inspector of Rail- 
ways of England, would not count any road first 
class which did not use this switch, nor would 
he recommend that any road should be permit- 
ted to run unless equipped with it. I agree 
Avith him fully. 

We have in this country a substitute tor the 
point in what is called the '^ Tyler switch,'' but 
each one requires not less than i,ooo lbs. of 
castings. The difficulty of expense is, therefore, 
serious. It is a safety switch, and is thus far 
good ; but the great difficulty of the stub switch 
is not removed, and that is the everlasting ham- 
mering at the point between the movable and 
fixed rails, to say nothing of the cost and weight. 
The Wharton switch has obtained a -great cele- 
brity in some parts of the country. The advan- 
tage in this switch lies in the fact that the rail 
is unbroken and the wheels are carried over the 
main track. This might be dangerous, how- 
ever, at high speed going through siding. The 
cost, too, is greater than for points. Never- 
theless, a very high authority, the Pennsylvania 
Railroad, has adopted this switch on its main 
line. The point or split switches have the com- 
bined advantages of economy and safety, and 
leave also an unbroken track at the points. No 
jar occurs to the train in passing over it, so that 



84 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

it has all the advantages of both the Tyler and 
Wharton switches, with none of their disadvan- 
tages. It is free to the use of all roads, and 
with the new improvements of the TiUinghast, 
Lorenz, and Armstrong springs, it stands un- 
equalled. In putting them in it is of vital im- 
portance that the shoulder and split or point 
rail should have equal bearing upon an iron 
surface or plate. Should the shoulder rail be 
placed higher than the split rail, certain danger 
of derailment w^ill result. There is another 
split switch which requires but one rail to bs 
moved, while the other point is fixed in a cast- 
ing upon which the flange of one set of wheels 
will ride in going into the siding. This is the 
only objection, while the advantages are great. 
The next important matter is switch-stands. 
No switch-stand should be used on main line 
unless a light can be attached to it easily, and 
no switch on the main line of an important tho- 
roughfare should be without a switch-light. 
There are many good forms of switch-stand ; 
the main points are : levers with no lost motion, 
rapid locking as the latch moves, a good, visible 
target painted red and white, and, above all, no 
poor iron used in the construction. The con- 
necting-rod and connection rods should be of 
the best material, and should be made so that 
there is no lost motion to produce a foul switch. 
If the rods of stub switches, by being too full 



CROSSING-'FROGS. 8$ 

size, either allow lateral motion or permit base 
to become diagonal, the latter may be prevented 
by making a heavy shoulder upon one side, 
something like the plan of the Huntington 
gauge. The plans here presented, beginning 
on page 259, will illustrate the best frogs, 
switches, switch-stands, and targets. 

CROSSING-FROGS. 

Under the present system of railroad con- 
struction of this countr}^ many crossing-frogs 
are used, and it is oi the first importance to 
choose a proper device for this purpose. A 
failure in this respect may cost more in wheels 
than can be replaced with the salary of many 
road-masters. The most difficult to manage, 
and the most expensive to maintain, is the right- 
angle crossing ; the easiest is the angle of the 
i-ii frog, or say angle of 5° or 6"^. 

The right-angle crossing is the pest of the 
road-master, and I have never seen but one 
crossing-frog — viz. : the " Mansfield '' — which 
comes near being w^hat it should be. At this 
angle the use of india-rubber upon crossings of 
large degrees seems indispensable to economy 
in wheels as well as in crossings. In light angles 
the steel-rail crossing is all that can be desired. 
In right-angle crossings, if long timbers can con- 
veniently be obtained, it is best to frame four 
timbers; but when that is inconvenient, and the 



86 



THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 



angle is less than 30°, ties are preferable of par- 
ticular lengths, as in diagram (page 261), so that 
the bearing surface may best remain uniform. 
The system of carrying wheels over crossings 
upon flanges is not to be commended ; but if 
rubber is used with a lifter it may be employed 
to advantage. 

In yards where much switching is done run- 
ning off at switches is a frequent occurrence, 
and switch-rods are often so bent that the gauge 
of the switch is made much too narrow. If 
these rods are not straightened the ends of all 
the rails at the head of the switch will be ex- 
posed to rough usage, as the switch-rails will 
not meet in line with the others. It is best 
always to keep spare rods on hand, to be used 
in case of a run-off. The bent rods can then be 
taken to the shop and straightened for future 
use. Rods may be protected by placing a tie 
on each side of them., leaving just room enough 
between the ties for the rod to move freely. In 
case of a run-off, the ties will relieve the i^ods 
of the weight of the wheels and prevent bending. 

The throw of switches should be nicely ad- 
justed, so that the head of the switch v»^ill meet 
in perfect line with the ends of all connecting 
rails. It is not uncommon to see iron at 
switches exposed to the action of v/heel-fianges 
cut and gouged to such an extent as to require 
removal before it has served out half its time. 



PUTTING IN FROGS. 8/ 

Connecting-rods should be so constructed that 
they may be lengthened or shortened, as may 
be necessary, to adjust the throw of the switch, 
which would prevent unnecessary wear ot rail 
and also of locomotive flanges. 

Much injury is caused by putting a new frog 
with old iron ; that is, iron that has been in use 
so long as to be worn down considerably lower 
than the frog. Or sometimes a rail of lower 
pattern is used next the frogs, v/hich causes the 
frog to be severely pounded by every wheel 
that passes. There is scarcely anything more 
disagreeable in railroad practice than running a 
locomotive over the hard, square, unyielding 
end of a steel-plated frog that is from ^ to ^ an 
inch higher than the connecting rail ; but if you 
call the attention of the track-man to it, he is 
very likely to tell you that ^^ it v/ill soon wear 
down to the rail, and then it will be all right.'* 
But when there is the slightest difference be- 
tween the height of the frog and rail, shims of 
iron plates should be used to bring them to a 
level. A nick should be cut in the plate for the 
spike, to prevent its working out. If the rail is 
higher than the frog (which is rarely the case), 
it can be chipped off on the bottom so as to cor- 
respond with the height of the frog. It will pay 
to be very particular in doing this kind of work. 

The fastenings to guard-rails should be of a 
more substantial character than they often are. 



88 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

It is common to use cast fastenings on a great 
many roads, but there are guards on other roads 
with no fastenings but ordinary spikes, and a 
short guard-rail cannot be well secured by any 
number of these alone. In the absence of cast- 
ings it is common- to fit a piece of plank into the 
throat of the guard and spike it to the tie. 
This answers a good purpose, but not less than 
two should be used to each guard-rail, and the 
more the better — as many as there are ties to 
spike them to. One of these braces alone, if 
placed near the middle of a guard-rail, is worse 
than nothing ; for there is, of course, more or 
less strain on the end of the guard-rail, as it 
is pressed by the flanges of wheels, and if 
only spikes are used at the end they will yield 
considerably. Now if there is an unyielding 
fastening in the middle, as is often the case, the 
shock takes effect in the opposite direction, at 
the other end of the guard; as trains pass 
in different directions the action is reversed, 
the guard-rail acting as a double lever, with 
the single plank or casting m the middle as 
a fulcrum. In this manner a guard-rail will 
soon be knocked loose, and not unfrequently 
thrown entirely out of the track ; and the man 
who spiked it will wonder why it is that the 
brace he took so much pains to place in the 
centre did not prevent its getting loose, when 
it was in reality the cause of it, 



MAKESHIFTS TO BE AVOIDED. SQ 

The inefficiency of short guard-rails was men- 
tioned in a previous chapter ; but as they will, 
no doubt, be frequently met with by repair-men, 
I should advise them to take them up, throw 
them in the scrap-heap, and use good long ones 
instead, such as can be secured in place,, and 
serve*their purpose satisfactorily at all times. 

The practice of putting a piece of plank or a 
car-stake between the frog and the guard-rail, 
for the purpose of securing the latter, is a bad 
one.* Guard-rails sometimes receive severe 
pounding, and the frog must receive a portion 
of the shock, w^hich will in time loosen the 
spikes which hold it in place, unless it is well 
shouldered into the cross timbers that support 
it, which is not always the case. There is 
usually an immense amount of useless tinker- 
ing done among frogs and switches that serves 
only to pass away time which the company 
must pay for, and makes a great show of work 
while accomplishing nothing. 

Carefully prepared rules for placing frogs in 
a cross-over track, where the two tracks are 
straight and parallel, will be found in the chapter 
of Rules and Tables at the end of the book, be- 
ginning page 171. 

A great deal of work, too, is done on track 
repairs before it is needed, for the sake of being 

* The practice of using makeshifts at all is wrong. Let everything be made 
and used for its legitimate purpose. 



90 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

busy, at a useless waste of time and money. 
Of course there will occasionally be a slack 
time, or times when there is nothing particu- 
larly urgent on hand to do ; it is at these times 
that the foreman of track repairs has to show 
his experience and judgment in placing his men 
where they can be best employed for the inte- 
rest of the company. 



CHAPTER X. 

PATTERNS OF RAILS— JOINTS. 

Diagrams of Rails most in Use — Mode of Building a 
Pile for Rolling Rail — Weight of Rails to be in 
Proportion to Tonnage — Joints — Diagrams of Joint- 
Fastenings. 

It is the duty of a road-master not only to 
keep up his track, but to study the effect of the 
roHing-stock upon the rails, etc., that he may 
give an intelligent opinion upon the shape and 
weight of rails in use, and of the merits of 
everything pertaining to his department. 

One of the first considerations is to get the 
material for a rail into the best shape for ser- 
vice. There is a great variety of opinions upon 
the shape of rails, and it requires no little judg- 
ment to select the best. It is difficult to change 
the pattern of a rail ; iron once in the track 
must wear out there. A mistake in this matter 
on the part of a manager or engineer is more 
loss to the road than the salary of a dozen engi- 
neers or experts every year. 

Some patterns of rails most approved are 
presented in the diagrams on pages 263 to 268, 

91 



92 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

embracing rails serviceable for narrow (3 ft.) 
gauge to broad (6 ft.) gauge, with the heaviest 
machinery and rolling - stock used upon the 
heaviest grades and curves. These patterns 
are presented as the best models at present in 
use, but not urged as infallible ; we must hope 
for continual progress. 

Some authorities maintain that the old pear- 
shaped rail is the best form, and that too much 
has been sacrificed to making rails to suit the 
fish-plate. I differ from them, and maintain 
that the T-rail is the strongest and best. It 
has been found almost impossible since the first 
pear-shaped rail has been laid to keep a rail in 
line which is laid simply with a chair ; a fish- 
plate is needed even when a base chair is used. 
A T steel rail of 60 lbs. per yard may be made 
of sufficient strength to sustain the heaviest 
rolling-stock of our best roads upon heavy 
grades for a number of years. The Franklin 
Branch of the Atlantic & Great Western Rail- 
road was laid from Meadville to Franklin upon 
a poor road-bed, with heavy curves but light 
grades and poor ballast, with an iron rail weigh- 
ing 35 lbs. per yard. The heaviest locomotives 
(37 tons) of the road hauled successfully the 
largest trains over it during twenty months. 
The difficulties v/hich caused the removal ©f 
this rail at this time were its turning over, ow- 
ing to the narrow base (3^ in., with height the 



ROLLING RAILS. 



93 



same). The iron was of very superior quality, 
and upon being broken showed a homogeneous 
texture. 

The mode of building a pile for rolling rails 
is important. The engineer and road-master 
should pay attention to this matter. The fol- 
lowing diagrams show the method of building 
the pile of what is called re-rolled iron : 




RAIL PILE, 



The re-rolled iron is not simply. rail re-rolled, 
but new iron for head and base added to or 
mixed with a certain amount — about two-thirds 
— of old rails re-rolled into bars, 4 ft. X 7 in. X 
I in. 

The place where a rail gives out is almost 
invariably in the head. Let the head be of 
proper material — firmly united cold-short iron, 
or with steel top — and the rail will be durable. 
Let it be of red-short iron, and in a few weeks 
it will be destroyed. Cold-short for the head, 
fibrous iron for the base, with the intermediate 
of old rails, is the usual combination. 

The weight of rails should be in proportion 



94 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

to the tonnage passing over them, and more 
particularly to the weight of the rolling-stock. 
Locomotives weighing 70 tons (including ten- 
der), at present used upon roads of heavy grades, 
require a steel rail of not less than 60 lbs. per 
yard, with ties close together — not less than 
2,700 to 3,000 per mile. A heavier rail is used 
both in England and on Gome of the roads of 
this countrj^ It has been frequently remarked 
that the iron rails of our first railroads lasted 
much longer than those made in later years. 
Those who make this assertion do not take into 
consideration the facts that traffic has greatly 
increased, that rolling-stock is much heavier, 
and that the speed of trains is much increased. 
Then comes the additional fact that rails are 
made with less care, because railroad companies 
demand rails at a low price, because they can- 
not afford to pay for iron at all at a high price. 
The experience of the past ten years shows that 
no road can afford to use iron rails as at present 
generally made, and that steel rails of good 
manufacture will outlast the best iron rails at 
least from seven to ten fold. 

JOINTS. 

After selecting the oest rail, the next point is 
to select a good joint. I am of the opinion that 
there is rarely money enough spent upon joints. 
The old-fashioned chair has long lost its repute 



RAIL JOINTS— NUT-LOCKS. 95 

as a first-class device. The fish-joint succeeded 
it about the year 1854, and many base-chairs 
have been substituted with varying success ; and 
now it is admitted that the steel rail has been 
frequently sacrificed to weak and imperfect 
joints. The flange-iron, the reinforced fish- 
plate called the Samson joint, the Fisher joint, 
the Dilworth & Porter, the Arthur, have come 
into use, but it is probable that all these come 
short of what is required to make up a first- 
class joint for steel rails (as strong as the rail 
itself) upon ro^ds of heavy grades and with 
heavy rolling-stock. A very satisfactory joint 
is the Dilworth & Porter combined wdth the 
fi-sh-plate. 

The angle splice is the best form of that kind 
of splice. There are three defects : first, the 
metal is not well disposed for strength ; second, 
the strain of creeping comes upon the bolts ; 
third, the vertical strain on the outer part of the 
flanges has a tendency to strain the bolts verti- 
cally. However, it has superior advantages 
over the simple fish-plate. 

The diagrams on pages 264 to 271 represent 
some of the best joints at present (1877) in use 
in this country. 

NUT-LOCKS. 

There is an endless variety of nut-locks, and 
many of them of much merit, and yet, after an 



g6 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

examination of nearly all, and of practical expe- 
rience with many, I find nothing better than the 
wooden washer, made in two parts for each 
joint, that is, to go over two bolts about one 
inch thick. Outside of this washer put a washer 
of No. 1 6 iron and screw up tight, pressing into 
the wood. This gives elasticity and saves the 
threads of bolls. It is the cheapest kind of nut- 
lock. 



CHAPTER XL 

RENEWING TIES— SHIFTING IRON. 

The Work not so Simple as it Looks — Needs to be 
DONE Intelligently — Difference of Ties — How Track 
IS Affected by Changing Ties — Uses for Old Ties — 
Rails : When Ends are Broomed — Step- Chairs for 
Laying Repaired Iron — Adjusting Repaired Rails — 
Spike-Drawing — Preserving the Gauge — Uncurved 
Iron for Curves. 

When ties have been selected and laid ac- 
cording to the directions given in a former 
chapter, it will be comparatively easy to replace 
old ties with new ones ; otherwise it will be 
difficult to do it properly. I do not mean to be 
understood that it is a very difficult affair to 
take out a decayed tie and put a new and sound 
one in its place, as is done ordinarily ; but to do 
it well requires considerable care and attention. 
The work is, however, too often entrusted to a 
squad of inexperienced men, with no one to act 
as foreman, under the delusion that any man, or 
gang of men, is capable of doing it. This is a 
mistake under which some of the best track-men 
in the country are laboring. It is not generally 
known by section-masters, or even road-masters, 

97 



98 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

that a small tie has a heavier weight to sustain 
than a large one, and that therefore it requires 
some skill and intelligence to manage properly 
the apparently simple operation of renewing 
ties. It is easily understood that a small tie 
will settle into the ballast further under the 
same load than a large one, and that the rail 
will, in consequence, spring considerably more 
when supported by the former than in passing 
over the latter. Let us suppose that several 
small ties are placed next to several large ones, 
and that the small ones settle an inch more than 
the large ones (which is not an extravagant sup- 
position) ; it is obvious that the small ties are 
subjected to a blow of six or eight tons, more 
or less, as the case may be, by the fall of one 
inch,greater than the larger ties have to sustain. 

Of course the section-men, in renewing ties, 
should remove only such as are decayed. When 
ties vary much in size, as they usually do, it is 
only the small ones that require, removal, as the 
large ones are capable of doing duty for a year, 
or perhaps several years, longer. If they have 
been assorted when first laid, and those of a 
uniform size laid together, of course each set of 
equal size will be so far decayed as to render it 
necessary to remove them all at one time, while 
the next or adjoining set (length of iron), if 
larger, may remain for a time longer. 

In this way the rail will receive a uniform sup- 



, ' RENEWING TIES. 99 

port, as well when the new ties are under it as 
it did with the old ©nes. If the ties have been 
laid promiscuously, without regard to size, in 
removing those which are decayed a tie will be 
taken out here and there; and as a new tie, 
well tamped, gives the rail a more solid founda- 
tion than an old one, it has a bad effect on roll- 
ing-stock, and on the track also, by presenting 
an uneven support. The condition of the track, 
in regard to its solidit}^ is subject to two changes 
under the operation of removing ties when it is 
done at random : first, by disturbing the road- 
bed under the ties newly laid, while it remains 
solid under others ; next, afte?^ the second tamp- 
ing of the new ties, necessary soon after they 
are put in, they become the most unyielding by 
reason of the greater solidity of the wood now 
resting on an equally solid bearing in the bal- 
last. Any one riding on • a locomotive over a 
track, after ties have been removed and replaced 
at random, will appear to travel over a very 
uneven surface, owing to a want of uniform sup- 
port by the ties. Thus it will be seen that 
there is room for the exercise of as much care 
and attention in the simple operation of renew- 
ing ties as in laying them at first, in order that 
the track and the company may receive the 
full benefit of so expensive an operation. 

Because a small tie has a heavier load to sus- 
tain than a large one, it follows that when 



lOO THB ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

several small ties are laid together they will, 
under some circumstances, settle an inch or 
more in excess of larger ones placed adjoining 
them. This may appear absurd to many rail- 
road men, especially to those who have had the 
good-fortune always to have been employed on 
roads so well tied that there is barely room be- 
tween the ties for tamping, having, in fact, 
almost a solid bed of timber with rails laid on 
of the heaviest pattern. Unfortunately for the 
railroad community, however, and the com- 
munity at large, there are but few such roads 
in the country ; and those whose experience 
has been on roads w^here ties are laid very scat- 
teringly and w4th a light rail will have no 
difficulty in finding ample proof of the correct- 
ness of what has been said. 

USES FOR OLD TIES. 

Old ties have many uses : 

1 . To patch temporarily broken fences, 

2. To make footings for washing embank- 
ments. 

3. For temporary platforms for piling rails 

4. Fuel for drying sand at sand stations. 

5. Fuel for section-men. 

In all cases the scrap spike should be care- 
fully collected and sent to depots of scrap. 
Sawing up old ties for engine-wood is not 
profitable unless wood is worth $5 per cord. 



REPAIRIXG RAILS, lOI 

After ties have been distributed to the uses 
abov^ mentioned, if needed, the surplus should 
be burned at such times as to suit the move- 
ments of the trains, always after consultation 
with the superintendent. 

After burning, all scrap spike must be care- 
fully collected and sent to depot. 

SHIFTING IRON. 

When a rail gets badly broomed at the ends, 
it is taken to a shop and repaired by welding 
on a piece of bar-iron to level it up to its former 
shape. A great deal of iron remains sound and 
in good condition throughout its entire length 
after the ends have become battered so as to 
render them unfit for use. It is, therefore, a 
matter of economy to repair such rails, and put 
them to further use, rather than to put new iron 
in their place, as iron that is well repaired and 
properly replaced in the track will answernearly 
as well as new iron for a long time. It requires 
considerable care, however, in replacing it in 
the track to make repaired iron pay. Some- 
times the end of a rail that has been repaired is 
placed next to one that has not been worn or 
battered sufficiently to require removing. In 
such cases the ends of the repaired rails, being 
higher than the adjoining ones, are exposed to 
a severe pounding, and are soon spoiled, so that 
repaired iron does not ahvays pay expenses. 



I02 THE ROAD-MASTER'S iSSISTANT. 

The subject of repairing rails is an important 
one. With my own experience, and that of 
other engineers, it is best to put up a saw, cut 
the rails, and repunch the holes, where neces- 
sary. 

In laying repaired iron what are known as step- 
chairs should be used. These may be made of 
any of the ordinary styles of cast chairs, but 
with the rail-seat on one side lower than that 
on the other, so that rails varying somewhat in 
height may be placed together and yet form a 
true and even joint, preventing all unnecessary 
wear or pounding of iron. The lips of step- 
chairs should be made low, and have both sides 
alike, so that they may be used either side out, 
or on either side of the track, as occasion may 
require. It is best, also, to provide chairs of 
various patterns, Avith reference to the height 
of the step, that, varying slightly, they may ac- 
commodate any variation in the height of rails. 
The expense of furnishing these chairs is but a 
trifle as compared to the saving they effect in 
the wear of iron, and it is economy to use them 
even when the variation in the height of the 
iron is very slight. 

The various operations in repairing track 
render it frequently necessary to draw spikes 
from ties. Now, if in replacing iron. the rails 
can occupy exactly the same place as those 
taken out, and -leave the gauge correct, it is 



PLUGGING SPIICE-IIOLES, ETC, IO3 

of great importance to plug the spike-holes 
with wooden spikes made at the car-shops ; for, 
if the holes are left unplugged, the tie soon 
becomes full of holes, which fill with water. 
Thus the timber is softened under the rail and 
soon rots, while all other portions remain sound. 
It is best, therefore, to drive spikes in the old 
holes, after filling or plugging them up, unless 
there is some good reason for driving them in a 
new place, in which case the old holes should 
be tightl}^ plugged to keep out water. 

In putting new iron in the place of old it is 
generally the custom to draw the spikes only 
on one side of the rail. In some cases this may 
be done to good advantage, as it will save con- 
siderable labor, as well as the damage to ties 
and spikes which is the result of careless draw- 
ing. There is much variety of opinion upon the 
question of the propriety of pulling the outer or 
inner spikes in relaying iron ; but it would seem 
that the advocates of the former methodhave 
the advantage, inasmuch as the new rails are sure 
to be truly spiked to gauge on the outer side, 
where the pressure comes, which seems to be 
the vital consideration, besides being more con- 
venient. On the other hand, the great rapidity 
necessary in changing rails with heavy traffic 
causes the necessity of too rapid work, and spik- 
ing is sometimes not well done. Therefore the 
advocates of pulling inside spikes claim that 



104 ^^^-^ ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

they Avith more care and at leisure can spike to 
gfausfe on the outside afterwards. As old track 
is usually wide gauge, if the new rails are 
wider on the tread than the old ones, the gauge 
may occasionally be made correct, though 
the spikes are drawn on one side only. But 
it is not worth while to be too particular about 
saving labor in this work to the sacrifice of a 
true gauge, and it is important, therefore, as a 
rule, to draw all the spikes not close to the rails. 
Several miles of track might have been seen, 
not long ago, on what is considered a first-class 
road, where the laying of new iron had reduced 
the gauge half an inch. The rails, in conse- 
quence, were wearing out rapidly, and could 
last but a short time under those conditions. In 
the same way, the use of iron of some other 
pattern, wath a broader base, might render a 
gauge half an inch or more too wide ; and yet, 
judging from the practice of some traCk-men, 
they are not aware that track-iron is made of 
more than one size or pattern, but believe that 
all rails are alike. 

In renewing iron, as in laying new track, 
curving is often neglected. A car-load of iron 
is run, perhaps, hundreds of miles from where 
it was loaded, to the spot where the iron is to 
be used, when it is distributed from the car and 
laid, without regard to curving or straighten- 
ing. If the iron is to be laid on a straight line, 



RELAYING CURVED RAILS. 10$ 

this plan is well enough, care being taken to 
straighten such rails as have been kinked in 
handhng ; but if it is to be laid on a sharp curve, 
it is better to unload it carefully at the end of 
the curve, and then it can be properly curved 
and laid from the iron-car or a hand-car, as in 
laying new track. 

In relaying iron that has been taken from the 
track and repaired it frequently happens that 
some which has been in use on a curve is relaid 
on a straight line. In such cases the curve 
should be well taken out of it before laying it. 
At other times it is found convenient to lay on 
curves iron which has previously been used on 
a straight line, and this is often done without 
curving it. This matter does not generally re- 
ceive the attention its importance demands. 
Iron is taken out for repairs and sent to a shop, 
which may be many miles away, and when it is 
ready for use again it is likely to be sent to 
some other part of the line, far away from 
where it was taken out. As there is no remedy 
for this, all iron coming from the rail-shops 
should be closely examined before laying it, to 
see that it is in proper shape. The operations 
of removing, repairing, and relaying iron are, 
altogether, expensive, and, if not Avell done, 
will not pay. From the report of the New 
York State Engineer for year ending Septem- 
ber, 1869, it appears that the cost for repairs of 



I06 THE ROAD-MASTERS ASSISTANT. 

iron in road-bed in that State, during the year, 
was $4,717,907.54; and no doubt a large pro- 
portion of this cost might have been saved by 
proper care and attention in laying the track, 
and by giving it proper care and attention after- 
wards. 

The cost of maintaining the permanent way 
is one of the greatest obstacles to the profitable 
working of any railroad ; but, as before said, 
this expense, on some roads, is more than 
double what it need be, were proper measures 
taken to prevent all imnccessary wear to track- 
iron. 



CHAPTER Xir. 

SNOW AND ICE. 

Snow-Ploughs Insufficient — Jealousy of Master-Mechan- 
ics A Hindrance to their Improvement — Other Reasons 
— Clearing the Flange-way — Some Methods of Doing 

THIS. 

In some sections of the country the expense 
of removing snow and ice from railroad tracks 
is enormous, and, as the work is usually done by 
section-men and often charged to the account 
of track repairs, it may be proper to offer some 
hints on the subject. 

The clearing of snow from railroad track has 
not received sufficient attention from managers, 
and track-men are in a great measure powerless 
in this matter without the co-operation of the 
superintendent and master-mechanic. The last- 
named official is usually on hand, in case of a 
severe storm, with a huge snow-plough, con- 
structed in his shop, after his plan. This com- 
monly requires the united efforts of from three 
to six locomotives to move it through enormous 
drifts of snow, or through the deep cuts that are 

filled with it ; and when once the monster, with 

107 



I08 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

wings extended, has passed over the line, it re- 
turns to be made much of by every mechanic 
who had the least part in its construction, and 
to increase the self-complacency of its designer. 
There is hardly any first-class railroad in snowy 
parts of the country but is provided with some 
kind of '' big snow-plough," and, as a general 
thing, it is useful for removing heavy drifts of 
deep snow ; but it is apt to leave large quantities 
in the flange-way, which soon become packed 
and frozen into solid ice, offering a great obstruc- 
tion to trains. What is -thus left to pack down 
in the flange-way is usually neglected by the 
master-mechanic and those under his charge, 
and track-men are left to their own resources to 
remove it. 

When the first railroad was built in this coun- 
try, it was asked : '' Can we run it in winter, on 
account of snow ? " It was a question not easily 
answered then, but after a few years' experi- 
ence it w^as demonstrated that, with proper ap- 
pliances, snow would not seriously interfere 
with railroad traffic, or, at least, that the diffi- 
culty was not an insurmountable one. Years 
later very good snow-ploughs were put in opera- 
tion on some roads, but even the best of them 
Avere not adopted on roads other than those for 
w^hich they were built, and there is not to this day 
any standard snow-plough in use. The reason 
assigned is the great reluctance of master-me- 



SXOIV-PLOUGHS. 109 

chanics generally to adopt each other's improve- 
ments. However this may be, it is certain that 
no thoroughly efficient snow-plough has ever 
come into general use, and of all improvements 
of a mechanical nature pertaining to railroads 
the snow-plough may be said to be in the rear. 
There seem to be at least two good reasons for 
this : one as stated above, arid the other that the 
article is needed only a portion of the year ; so 
it is somew^hat in the condition of the roof of a 
certain man's house — when it was fair weather 
it needed no repairs, and when it rained he could 
not repair it. So with building a snow-plough : 
in hot summer weather, or in pleasant weather 
in autumn, it is forgotten ; when every one is up 
to his ears in snow it is too late to commence 
building one, as winter will soon be over and it 
v/ill not be needed. This is the excuse on some 
roads, year after year, for not building a first- 
class snow-plough ; and winter after winter their 
trains are lost in some severe storm and not 
heard from for days at a time. When the snow 
is all gone in the spring, the managers conclude 
they have had an unusually hard winter and 
probably will never see the like again ; that it is 
at least doubtful if a snow-plough will be needed 
the following winter, and so none is built. This 
is the practice of many companies year after 
year. 

But a more particular consideration of the 



no THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

snow-plough belongs to another chapter. The 
matter in hand is the work of clearing track 
of snow and ice, in which track-men are espe- 
cially interested. 

When the flange-way of the track becomes 
filled with hard snow, which soon forms into 
ice, it offers great resistance to passing trains, 
and the wood or coal pile is correspondingly 
diminished. This important matter is often 
neglected by track-men, who, as a general thing, 
imagine that if the surface of the rail is clear, 
and passenger trains make time, and if freights 
are not very much behind, the track is all right. 
They do not consider that the passenger engine 
which has passed them with such apparent ease 
is using a large amount of fuel in excess of the 
ordinary quantity, or they do not notice that the 
freight trains are running with several cars less 
than their usual number, on account of the flange 
being full of snow and ice. It is no excuse for 
to-day that the flanges wxre cleared out yester- 
day ; for, when there is snow on the ground, it 
is constantly sifting along and drifting into the 
flange-way, where it is soon packed into ice by 
passing trains. Some roads in the country have 
an apparatus attached to the front of the loco- 
motive or under a car for clearing flanges as the 
train passes along. This is a rehef to track-men, 
and, if the contrivance works well, it is equally 
beneficial to train-men and profitable to the com- 



CLEARING FLANGE- WA YS. Ill 

pany. It is, however, difficult to operate such 
appliances successfully, on account of the lia- 
bility of the scraper to catch on chairs, frogs, 
crossing-planks, etc. There is in use on some 
roads a very efficient contrivance that can be 
raised on approaching crossings, etc., but, ow- 
ing to the difficulty of raising it at the proper 
time, it has not come into general use. In most 
cases track-men cannot make better use of their 
time in winter than in clearing the flanges, and 
by doing this thoroughly they may save the 
company a handsome sum out of current ex- 
penses. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

ON FIRE AND WATER AS ENEMIES — ALSO ON 
PRESERVING FENCES. 

Washing Away of Embankments — Instance of Neglect 
AND ITS Consequences — Vigilance Needed at the Season 
OF Freshets — Duty of Section-Masters — Power of Wa- 
ter Not Fully Realized by Section-Men — Action of 
Water in Deep Cuttings — Surface Ditches— Hand-Car 
Practice — Fires : Burning Waste ; Bridge-Burning 
and its Causes— Breaks in Fences may be Hidden by 
Weeds— Falling Trees — Danger of Leaving Fences Bro- 
ken — Tool- H ouses. 

In many sections of the country the nature 
of the soil is such that a sudden fall of rain will 
frequently wash away the embankments ; and 
many a frightful accident has occurred in con- 
sequence of a rainfall which the section-master 
has not regarded as at all dangerous. But in 
no case are vigilance and promptness more 
needed. Even in the night-time, if a section- 
master is awakened by a sudden and severe 
storm, it is best for him to bestir himself and 
look over his track before any train is due. 
The writer once cautioned a section-master to 
look closely to an embankment composed most- 



PRECAUTIONS AGAINST FLOODS. II3 

ly of sand, in which a drenching rain had made 
a small channel and which it was rapidly under- 
mining. By reason of his giving no heed to 
the warning a whole train was wrecked, with a 
loss of several lives and several thousand dol- 
lars' damage to property. This is not mentioned 
as a solitary instance, for occurrences of this 
kind are frequent at some seasons of the year. 
Within a few years a station building on a New 
England road was washed entirely from its 
foundation and an excavation one hundred feet 
in depth was made on the site of the building. 
This was done in less than an hour's time. 
Such an occurrence, though an extreme case, 
may, nevertheless, serve as a warning. 

CARE OF ROAD-BED IN FRESHETS. 

xA^ttentive readers of the daily papers cannot 
fail to notice the frequent occurrence of fright- 
ful accidents at certain seasons of the year, 
caused by the sudden washing away or under- 
mining of embankments. It will be seen, 
however, that these do not take place so often 
in the spring and fall of the year, when freshets 
and storms prevail, because at such periods all 
hands are on the watch. Section-masters are 
more vigilant ; engineers run their trains with 
greater caution ; brakemen, instead of taking 
the most comfortable vacant seat they can find, 
sit astride the brake-wheel, ready for action at 



1 14 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

the first signal of danger. It is in midsummer, 
when the rough spring Aveather is over and the 
usual spring freshets have passed, that some of 
the worst accidents on record have happened. 
These are attributable to the sudden and severe 
storms which are frequently experienced in this 
country, crossing it from the Pacific to the At- 
lantic. It is not pleasant for a railroad man to 
take a hand-car or go on foot over several 
miles of track in a severe storm ; but every 
section- master should bear in mind that at such 
times his services are most valuable to the com- 
pany. It is his duty to make examinations, 
especially of those portions of road-bed which 
he may have reason to believe most liable to 
damage by the storm ; for, of course, there are 
places on every railroad that are more likely 
to be affected by storms than others. It is to 
be regretted that the average section-master is 
not aware of the power of water and does not 
realize the damage that may be done in a short 
time by even a small quantity of water, when 
conditions favor, its action. Miners in Califor- 
nia use water to tear down mountains; and, if 
properly applied, a ver}^ small quantity accom- 
plishes great results. Of course they use arti- 
ficial means to bring the water to bear with its 
greatest force ; but nature has her means too, 
which are ample, in given circumstances, to in- 
vest water with terrible powers of destruction. 



SURFACE-DRAINS, 



115 



For example : in heavy cuttings serious acci- 
dents have occurred by the undermining of 
boulders and huge rocks, by the action of a very 
small quantity of water, in a short time. 

There is a road in this country which occu- 
pies an enviable position on the list of first-class 
roads, and yet has had its full share of disaster ; 
and the action of water in deep cuttings has 
been to it the greatest cause of danger and 
damage. All roads in mountainous districts 
are more or less troubled in the same way, 
yet some companies, by taking proper pre- 
ventive measures, have suffered comparatively 
little. 

Surface-ditches are probably the best safe- 
guards against the danger under remark, and it 
is strange that they are not more generally used 
for that purpose. A surface-ditch is one that is 
dug on the top of a slope, but at a sufficient 
distance from its edge to prevent the water in 
it from breaking through and rushing down the 
slope. It is not expensive, the protection it 
gives to track is considerable, and track-men 
should see that one is dug in all places where it 
may be needed. 

HAND-CAR PRACTICE — FIRES. 

Section-men, in passing over the road with a 
hand-car, going daily to or from work, should 
carefully observe the condition of fences, etc., 



Il6 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT 

especially in view of the danger of fire. Care- 
less firemen frequently throw overboard hand- 
fuls of dirty waste, which at any time may be 
ignited by a spark from a passing locomotive. 
Fire may be carried thence into the dr}^ grass 
by the roadside, afterwards into the fence, and 
soon to the hay-stacks, buildings, wood-piles, 
etc. There are certain times in the year when 
such accidents are more likely to occur than at 
others, and much property is destroyed in that 
way which, w4th proper attention, might have 
been preserved. I do not undertake to say that 
all fires oT this nature may be prevented ; but 
it is notorious that track-men frequently pass 
handfuls of burning waste, or a stump that has 
caught fire from a spark, without deeming it 
worthy of notice. Now, w^hen a gang of track- 
men engaged at work discover a smoke on a 
line, they should at once attend to it. It should 
be a rule at all times never to neglect the least 
indication that a fire has caught on the line. On 
more than one occasion expensive bridges have 
been destroyed owing to a neglect to stop the 
hand-car and remove a live coal of fire dropped 
by a locomotive, or to put out a fire caused by 
a spark from a smoke-stack lodging in a decayed 
spot of timber. It is w^ell known that a bridge 
may be perfectly safe in regard to the soundness 
of its timbers, and yet have a small knot partly 
decayed, or '' punky,'' as it is termed. This does 



BRIDGE-B URNING, 1 1 / 

not impair the strength of the timber to any 
great extent, but it is extremely combustible and 
may be ignited by a single spark ; and when the 
fire has once caught, it may^remain for days un- 
noticed. Then, all at once, when the wind is 
right, the entire structure may be consumed in 
a few moments. It will thus be seen that 
bridge-burning does not necessarily show neg- 
lect on the part of track-men ; for, as above 
stated, fire may remain a long time in the 
timber without being discovered, and at last 
spread too rapidly to be checked. All these 
are exceptional cases. 

It is a good plan for the track-men to examine 
bridges in dry weather every time they cross. 
On some bridges that have cost large sums and 
are in exposed places watchmen are employed 
night and day. Yet, even with this precaution, 
many expensive bridges have been destroyed 
by fire. Small bridges and stringers on cul- 
verts, etc., need watching as much as larger 
structures, as not unfrequently a coal or spark 
may drop on a stringer or rail-plate and so burn 
it as to cause a ,train to fall through. Some of 
the worst wrecks on record have been taken 
out of culverts where a stringer has been nearl}'' 
burned through. Fire and water are admirable 
servants to railroad men, but if not watched 
narrowly they are apt to prove their worst 
enemies. 



Il8 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

FENCES. 

It is of the utmost importance that track-men 
should note well the condition of fences. In 
some places these are so overrun with weeds 
and underbrush that a serious break may be 
hidden from a careless eye. In fact, this matter 
is too often overlooked. In other cases a rail 
will be knocked off the fence, or a break be 
made by a fallen tree. It not unfrequently hap- 
pens that such damages go from day to day 
unrepaired, giving cattle an opportunity to get 
on the track. Now, when cattle are pastured 
alongside of a railroad, they are tempted by the 
good growth of grass across the fence, and are 
generally more apt than the track-men to notice 
a break in the fence. Surely, it is far better to 
stop a hand-car and repair a fence than to sub- 
ject a company to damages for killing stock, 
with the additional expense, occasionally, of a 
wrecked train. 

In a word, men, when passing over the road 
with a hand-car, should be prompt to remedy 
every defect they discover. It should be a rule 
never to postpone any work of repairs that can 
be done on the instant. 

TOOL-HOUSES. 

Sufficient attention is not given to the 
matter of tool- houses. Their position should 



TOGL-HO USES. 1 1 9 

always be outside of the switches, to enable 
section-men to pass out in the morning to their 
work when there are trains at the station. 

No tool- house should be less than twelve feet 
from the nearest track-v?ii\. This space is re- 
quired that hand-cars may be taken off and left 
where there is no danger from passing trains 
when the door of the tool-house is open. The 
house should be at least 12 ft. by 16 ft., the 
gable facing the track. The doors should be 
near one end of the house, to give room upon 
one side for tools, and to allow for inside labor 
and shelter in inclement weather. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

ON RAILROAD ACCIDENTS. 

Prevent ATBLE and Non- preventable Accidents — Illus- 
trated Newspaper Critics — A Word to Newspaper Men 
— What Accidents May be Classed as Unavoidable- 
Collisions : From Breaking of Car-couplings ; pROivr 
Misunderstanding by Train-men ; Between Gravel and 
Passenger Trains — Cheap and Ignorant Foreign Labor 
— Prompt Use of Lights — Narrative of a Collision- 
Broken (Usually Cheap) Axles — Cracked Wheels- 
Broken Rails — Who is Bla.meworthy — Misplaced 
Switches — False EconOxMY— Conclusion. 

To say that all railroad accidents might be 
prevented would be to make a rash assertion ; 
but to say that a large portion of them might 
be avoided would not be extravagant. When 
railroad accidents are classified, it is seen that 
there are some classes, all, or nearly all, of which 
might be prevented by means within the power 
of every railroad company. 

There is one class at least which it would 
seem cannot be prevented by any human power 
or forethought. In the latter class may be 
reckoned, in the present state of our knowledge, 
such as are caused by sudden and severe storms, 



UNA VOIDABLE ACCIDENTS, 1 2 1 

which tear away embankments or precipitate 
rocks and earth upon the track in deep cut- 
tings or on mountain sides, or wrench even iron 
bridges from their foundations. This class of 
accidents has been incidentally mentioned when 
cautioning track-men to be vigilant in case of 
storms, and prevent accidents as far as possible 
by giving warning to trains in case of danger. 
There are, however, cases when it w^ould seem 
that the utmost vigilance on the part of track- 
men would not prevent disaster. INIany times 
men have been sent over the road to. see that 
all was safe, just before a train was due ; yet, 
during the short space of time between their 
passing a certain point and finding it safe and 
the time for the arrival of the train at that point, 
a violent storm has swept away the track and 
the train has been precipitated into an awful 
chasm ."^ Accidents of this kind are not infre- 
quent, and there does not seem to be any way 
of preventing them, except by stationing men 
along the line in places where such accidents 
might occur to warn trains of danger. This 
has been, and continues to be, the practice on 
some roads ; yet, notwithstanding the pre- 
caution, such accidents have still occurred. 
The illustrated newspapers have interested the 
public on many occasions with engravings of 

* A furious gale had, in my opinion, more to do with the less of the Ashta- 
bula bridge thin its inherent defects.— C. L. 



122 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

these frightful disasters, taken from a sketch 
made on the spot by ''our special artist/* 
These illustrations are usually accompanied by 
very minute descriptions of the catastrophe, 
and generally wind up by assuming gross care- 
lessness on the part of some one, and charging 
the officers of the road with neglect of their 
duties. 

The daily papers of the country have of late, 
and indeed for years past, been very severe on 
the railroad managers in their accounts of what 
they usually term '' the last railroad murder/* 
In many cases such language is hardly too 
severe ; for although it would not be fair to 
suppose that any railroad manager would de- 
liberately subject himself to so serious a charge, 
yet the frequency of accidents on some roads 
makes it clear that there is far too little regard 
for human life or the interest of the road. On 
the other hand, it would be well for newspaper 
men to bear in mind that in railroad operations, 
as in every other business, accidents zvill hap- 
pen in spite of every effort to prevent them ; 
in such cases it serves no v/orthy purpose to 
occupy two or three columns in abusing the 
manager of a railroad. All such disasters as are 
caused by act of Providence, of course, cannot 
be prevented by any human agency, and no 
one should be blamed for them. Among these 
may be classed those caused by tornadoes. 



UNA VOIDABLE ACCIDENTS, I 2 3 

lightning, and by the sudden and awful rain- 
storms that sometimes visit variovis parts of the 
country and destroy hundreds of feet of embank- 
ment in a few moments. Fires may, under some 
circumstances, be properly put into this class 
of accidents ; so may, in some measure, the 
breaking of wheels, axles, etc., which cannot 
always be avoided. Although these may have 
been selected with great care, and thoroughly 
tested in regard to their strength, they will at 
times give way without any apparent cause. 
There are other accidents of a kindred nature 
which may also be classed as unavoidable, such 
as the breaking of car-couplings, for instance. 
It is generally the custom to make car-couplings 
of sufficient strength to withstand a much 
heavier strain than they are ever expected to 
be subjected to. This is done as a measure of 
safety, and the idea is correct ; but the constant 
friction to which the links are exposed v/ill, 
after a time, wear and weaken them to such an 
extent that -they frequently fail to bear the strain 
imposed upon them. Trains have parted while 
ascending a heavy grade, when, if there had 
been no brakemen on the detached cars, they 
would of course have run back down the in- 
cline ; and sometimes a collision has occurred 
with a following train. These accidents have 
been rather more numerous than is generally 
supposed. Formerly they were more frequent 



124 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

than now, as it is a general rule on all roads to 
station a brake man on the rear car to prevent 
them. This precaution does not always suffice, 
for the reason that there are often so many cars 
on the detached portion of the train that one 
brakeman cannot control them, and if the train 
following has been running a little closer to the 
train ahead than the orders allow, a collision is 
the result. This may be attributed to mere 
carelessness, and sometimes, at least, the charge 
would be fairly made. A rear brakeman, by 
leaving his post for a short time to have a 
friendly chat with his next brakeman, has been 
the immediate cause of such mischief. But it 
not unfrequently happens that a coupling-link 
works the pin out when the train is on a de- 
scending grade, and thus the train is divided. 
This cannot fairly be charged to carelessness ; 
for no amount of care and attention w^ould pre- 
vent the possibility of the pin working out, 
though it might prevent serious consequences 
ensuing. The breaking of links is in most cases 
due to their becoming much worn, bent, and 
twisted, and thereb}^ rendered unsafe. Doubt- 
less many accidents are caused by the use of 
links in this condition. As soon as a link shows 
the least sign of vv^eakness it should be laid 
aside.'^ 

* The very toughest and best iron should be selected for them, which is not 
always the case.— C. L. 



COLLISIONS, 125 

These accidents, though occurring in many 
different ways, may be generally classed as 
avoidable. Yet it is at times extremely difficult 
to say who is to blame and how much. A mis- 
understanding between train-men and others 
interested in the running of trains is the most 
common cause of collision ; and when this is 
made apparent, and all parties are found to have 
acted in good faith, it seem.s hard to censure 
an3^body. Yet it would seem that either the 
rules of the road must be defective, or the per- 
sons employed to carry them out deficient in 
the necessary intelligence and carefulness. 

At the present day such accidents are less fre- 
quent than formerly. There are obvious rea- 
sons for this, which will be apparent to any 
railroad man on giving the matter a little 
thought. 

There is now and then an account in the 
newspapers of a frightful collision on some of 
the old roads ; but this class of accidents is 
mostly confined to new roads, where no regular 
system of operating has yet been established, and 
vv here ballast trains, etc., Avhich are very likely 
to be out of time, are either running or are di- 
rectly in the Avay when regular trains are due. 
With few exceptions, the most frequent and de- 
structive collisions have occurred on new roads, 
between gravel and regular trains, owing to the 
former blocking up the road. This is no '' in- 



126 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

scrutable dispensation/' but the result of sheer 
carelessness. Any accident that is caused by 
ignorance or neglect is, of course, of the avoid- 
able kind. If railroad superintendents would 
exercise more caution in the selection or ap- 
pointment of men to responsible positions (and 
what position is not a responsible one?) there 
would be fewer collisions. It has become too 
much the custom of late, with railroad companies, 
to place men without experience to perform du- 
ties which, for the profitable management of the 
business, require a longer apprenticeship than 
they generally have. There are men of this sort 
in charge of working trains, on many roads, who 
can scarcely tell the time by a watch. This is a 
specimen of the '*' economy '' before mentioned, 
and probably no one has practised this kind of 
economy for any length of time without furnish- 
ing ample evidence to condemn it, and to show 
the importance of putting none but intelligent, 
wide awake men in charge of working trains. 

In regard to collisions commonly viewed as 
unavoidable, many have no doubt occurred in 
time of heavy fog, when, in a clear night, a light 
might have been seen a sufficient distance to 
prevent accident — such, for instance, as a hind 
train running into a preceding one which had 
broken down. Of course, if the leading train, 
on meeting with an accident, were to send a 
iight back far enough, it would prevent collr- 



AN EXAMPLE. 12'/ 

sion, if the light could be seen at all ; but when 
a following train runs rather close to the lead- 
ing one there would hardly be time after a se- 
rious accident to send a light back far enough 
to prevent a collision. There are various ways 
in which a collision might occur during a fog 
which would be avoided in clear weather. 

There is a well-managed road in one of the 
Middle States which was in operation for twenty 
years without having to record a single acci- 
dent to trains or injury to passengers. Then 
came a terrible collision, partly in consequence 
of a misunderstanding and partly because of a 
thick fog which was prevailing at the time. It 
was usual, when an express train arrived at the 
terminal station, for another fast train to pull 
out and go over the road in an opposite direc- 
tion. Four miles from the terminal station was 
another station, where, on certain occasions, if 
the train coming in was a little late, the two 
trains v/ould meet. On the occasion referred 
to the train coming in was only a trifle late, so 
it was concluded to proceed to the next sta- 
tion. The conductor of the train going out had 
by some means got the idea that he was to 
meet the in-coming train at the station before 
mentioned, and the conductor of the last-men- 
tioned train understood that he was to reach 
the terminal station as soon as possible. In 
consequence, the trains met with a fearful crash. 



128 Tim ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

As the engineer of each train was making his 
best time to get to the station ahead of him be- 
fore the other train came out, the trains were 
running at a high velocity, yet, strange as it 
may seem, the loss of life was but trifling, com- 
pared to that occasioned by similar accidents 
elsewhere ; although both trains were com- 
pletely wrecked, involving a severe loss to the 
compan3^ In this case it was argued that the 
conductors of both trains were to blame ; yet 
they were guided by exactly the rules which 
they had been practising for years with success. 
The main point in the argument for the defence 
w^as the fog. It is doubtful, under the circum- 
stances, w^hether those trains could have been 
run even in a clear da}^ at the same velocity, 
without coming in contact. But putting aside 
this question, the instance is given to show that 
accidents of the kind will occur in spite of all 
precautions to prevent them. 

It has been shown that there are certain acci- 
dents which happen in the common course of 
events, and for w^hich no blame can be right- 
fully laid upon any one. There seems, how- 
ever, to be an almost imperceptible line of divi- 
sion between such disasters and those that are 
the result of carelessness. 

But admitting that there are many and va- 
rious ways in which a railroad train may come 
to grief for which there is no apparent remed}^ 



DEFECTIVE WHEELS AND AXLES. I2g 

there are many cases where the ounce of pre- 
vention, which is better than a pound of cure, 
may be applied to good advantage. 

On some roads broken axles seem to be a 
more prevalent disease than on others, and this 
is owing, doubtless, to the managers working 
on the pound-of-cure plan — that is, they wish 
to economize, and do so by purchasing cheap 
axles, which keep them in constant trouble by 
their frequent failures. The verdict, *' caused 
by a broken axle,'' is often rendered of late, and 
this class of accidents is not diminishing, but 
continues to be alarmingly frequent."^^ Car- 
wheels have been greatly improved within a 
short time, and accidents from broken wheels 
appear to be less frequent than in the early days 
of railroading in this country ; 3^et, in some in- 
stances, cracked wheels have been run a little 
too long, and have occasioned damage. Mis- 
chief has arisen from running a wheel which 
has had a piece broken out of its flange ; and, 
indeed, it is not strange that accidents are fre- 
quent on some roads Avhere little attention is 
paid to defective wheels and axles. 

Some of the worst accidents have been caused 
by broken rails. In most cases this is the result 
of carelessness on the part of track-men. In 
others the managers are at fault for not provid- 

* My experience shows im that a lar^e number of broken axles is caused by 
the crystallization resulting from the constant use of cold water for hot boxes 
and axles. — C. L. 



130 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

ing iron to replace that which has become dan- 
gerous by being battered and worn. •Battered 
iron requires constant attention to keep it in a 
safe condition, and the least neglect on the part 
of any one connected with replacing or repair- 
ing rails may have serious consequences. The 
breaking of a sound rail is a rare occurrence. 
Most accidents happen on roads where the iron 
is know^n to be unsound ; all such accidents can 
be avoided. It is true that, in frosty localities, 
rails sometimes break which were supposed to 
be safe, but even here it is usually the unsound 
rails which give way, and, as these can be easily 
detected by a practised eye, it follows that the 
accident that they give rise to might be pre- 
vented by proper caution. 

RUNNING OFF AT SWITCHES. 

Misplaced switches have been the cause ot 
more accidents than anything else ; several years 
ago these accidents were so frequent that timid 
persons, while on a train, were in constant fear 
of becoming victims of some frightful catastro- 
phe. Switches and switch-tenders are improv- 
ing in regard to safety, but serious accidents 
with which they are connected are still fre- 
quent. There is a kind of switch, known as 
Tyler's safety switch,^ much used on many 
New England roads, that seems to be very effi- 

* Described and illustrated on p. 61, vol. iii., Railroad Gazette, 



SAFETY SWITCHES, 1 3 1 

cient, and it may be regarded as sure and safe at 
all times. This switch was patented, but, as the 
patent has expired, any railroad company that 
washes to use it can do so without fear of pro- 
secution. There is no doubt that the companies 
who have used this switch have saved thousands 
of dollars by it, and it is singular that it has not 
been more generally adopted. There are other 
switches that seem to be all that could w^ell be 
desired to ensure safety, but neither have th6y 
come into extensive use ; possibly because the 
inventors are poor and want a trifle for their 
patents. Running off at switches may in most 
cases be avoided by the exercise of ordinary 
care on the part of switchmen and engineers, so 
that any accident of this kind may generally be 
charged to carelessness. 

The list of railroad accidents is a long one, 
and, although a great many on the list are not 
of a serious nature, it is impossible for even a 
slight accident to occur without more or less 
expense to the company ; and many times these 
slight accidents are accompanied with the loss 
of life. Some of the most lamentable that ever 
happened in this country have taken place at 
drawbridges, owning to the neglect of the bridge- 
tender to change the signal when the draw was 
open. These disasters were so frequent a few 
years ago, and their results of so ruinous a cha- 
racter, that most of the companies operating 



132 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

roads where .drawbridges are used have been 
driven to adopt signals specially for their pre- 
vention. There are signals so connected with 
the machinery of the draw that there can be no 
mistake as to whether it is open or not, and no 
running off at drawbridges is therefore likely to 
occur in future, where such preventive means 
exist, except as the result of derangement of the 
signal apparatus and neglect to put it in repair. 

In explaining the causes of railroad accidents, 
perhaps the most comprehensive cause should 
not be overlooked — namely, the too great desire 
on the part of stockholders and managers to 
save miOney. This is the prime source from 
which most of the causes of railroad accidents 
arise. The way to remove them is to be found 
in a more liberal supply of necessary material, 
and in securing, even at some increase of cost, 
a greater efficiency on the part of employees. 

There is no surer way to prevent accidents 
than to be always on the look-out for them, not 
forgetting that they almost always come from a 
direction where they are least expected. The 
opinion prevails with many that railroad travel- 
ling is more dangerous than any other mode, 
and yet reliable figures show that the percent, 
age of travellers on railroads who are maimed 
or killed on their journey is far less than that 
of persons by the old-fashioned pubhc coaches 
and private conveyances. It would be folly, of 



THE SPEED-RECORDER. I 33 

course, to rest content with such a comparison, 
and sit down complacently under removable 
evils. Accidents on railroads are yet far too 
numerous, and it is hoped that what has been 
said will help to draw attention to their causes 
and the remedies. The reformer's voice will 
only be effectually silenced when railroad men 
learn to work on the maxim — '' Eternal vigilance 
is tlie price ^/—SAFETY/* 

We should probably be derelict in our duty 
if we did not call the attention of the railroad 
fraternity to the invention of the speed-recorder, 
a machine now coming into use upon many of 
the railroads of the countrv. This is an attach- 
ment to the axle of the caboose, which for every 
5,000 revolutions gives one to a small cylinder 
in the car, upon which is placed a roll of paper 
marked longitudinally with distance and verti- 
cally with time squares, and upon which an arm 
carrying a pencil worked by a common clock 
marks a line upon the paper, which approaches 
more to the horizontal the faster the train 
moves. Every stop and every retrograde move- 
ment, as well as the speed, are accurately 
recorded, doing away with the book record 
often so abused. Such a machine I unhesitat- 
ingly pronounce, after three years' experience 
in observing its results, a great safeguard as 
well as an economizer to every road in the 
country which may use it. 



CHAPTER XV. 

RAILROAD AND HIGHWAY CROSSINGS. 

Railroad-Crossings— Abolition of Grade-Crossings advo- 
cated — Safety and Economy equally demand it — Esti- 
mate OF THE Cost of Stops to a Main Trunk Line at a 
Grade- Crossing — Irritating Action of the Great Cor- 
porations WHEN Lesser Lines are Projected — Defective 
Legislation — Outlines of Laws to Check the Evil — 
Crossings Above or Below proposed — Conditions for 
Crossing at Grade when Unavoidable — Watchfulness 
AT Highway Crossings especially Enjoined. 

One of the ever-recurring sources of annoy- 
ance, vexation, and lawsuits is the railroad 
crossing at grade. 

Although the subject is one more directly for 
the consideration of the management of the 
road, the responsibilities of the road-master are 
so much increased by crossings that I do not 
hesitate to give my ideas with regard to them 
here. The road-master cannot understand too 
thoroughly all that bears directly or indirectly 
upon his business. 

There is no question but that the entire 
system of grade- crossings should be abolished. 
Advantage should be taken of every occasion — 
of which there are many — to rid roads of this 
^ort of incubus. But, instead of this, each 

134 



GRADE-CROSSIXGS. 135 

month adds to the number. The cost of a 
grade- crossing to a first-class road — that is, one 
with a heavy traffic — is not well understood. 
Ignorance and obstinacy are permitted to run 
new roads across great thoroughfares of travel 
and trade with the spirit of vandals. Law, as a 
remedy, is powerless, for legislation is defective, 
and the most unwarrantable injur}'-, accompa- 
nied by enormous expenses, is entailed upon the 
existing road ; while an under or an over cross- 
ing, which in most cases can be made at the 
same cost, and many times at less/, would prove 
a greater mutual advantage. 

It is plain to every one that no road, under 
any circumstances, should be permitted to cross 
another at grade upon a heavy incline or grade. 

To fix the limit of the grade upon which a 
grade-crossing might be allowed would be 
difficult, and must depend upon the maximum 
grade operated on the road to be crossed ; but, 
if I were fixing a maximum for a crossing, I 
should not make it more than 22 feet to the 
mile — the grade upon Vv^hich a car will stand 
without being affected by gravity. The damage 
to the road crossed, in addition to that from the 
*'stop," would be augmented if the number of 
cars on a train should be decreased by the 
** stop." Unfortunately, the law does not seem 
to provide a remedy for an unfair crossing in 
all States. 



136 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

As an illustration of some of these evils, we 
will present a case occurring almost every day 
in some part of the country. A new railroad, 
with a necessarily limited traffic, is projected, 
surveyed, and located at grade across the main 
line of one of the trunk lines of the country, 
having, we may suppose, a business of 30 heavy 
trains passing each way — that is, 60 trains per 
day. The new construction is begun and grad- 
ing completed to the line of the old road. 
There begins a struggle, resulting, in a majority 
of cases, in the defeat of the old road. In case 
the officers of the old road had been notified 
of the intended location, considerable expen- 
diture would be necessary to discover whether 
the crossing could not be made either over or 
under the old road ; and even after the engineer 
of the new line has been shown a line, either 
under or over, probably better than the one 
adopted, he rarely pays attention to it, trusting 
to former precedents and the slackness or inef- 
ficiency of the law to maintain his grade-cross- 
ing. 

The cost to the old line by the forcing of this 
new crossing cannot be less than an average of 
50 cents per train for each stop — a consequent 
expense of $30 per day, or, say, $9,000 per annum. 
Now, what offset is there to this? There can 
be none where the roads have hostile interests, 
and the interests of the old road demand resis- 



CROSSING LAWS WANTED. I 3/ 

tance until a fair compensation is obtained. If 
business relations are friendly, an understanding 
is always possible. Again, per contra, it not 
unfrequently occurs that a newly- projected rail- 
road, of vital importance to a large community, 
is trammelled in construction by a gigantic 
monopoly which claims to own the earth, air 
and waters above and below it, thus presenting 
an insuperable obstacle to the progress of the 
countr}^ To meet this state of things come 
appeals to a sympathetic public, resulting finally 
in many cases in crude and hasty legislation, 
the tendency of w^hich is towards insecurity 
of life and damage to vested interests. This 
factious opposition is by no means confined to 
the great monopolies. Projected crossings at 
grade, above or below grade, are signals for 
battle array on almost all roads. Some general 
legal enactments should be provided to prevent 
the disgraceful scenes repeated every year at 
these disputed points. I would suggest the 
following as outlines of laws to this purpose : 

1. Any new road shall have the right to build 
over or under any other road, without let or 
hindrance, at any point outside of the depot 
grounds of said road, and even over or under 
depot grounds in certain cases, provided, further, 
that in no ordinary case should room be allowed 
for less than two or more than four tracks. 

2. That any road may cross another at grade 



138 THE ROAD-MAST ER'S ASSISTANT, 

at a proper place by giving bond to pay an 
annual sum equivalent to 50 cents for each train 
required by law to stop on account of the ex- 
istence of said crossing. 

It is important that a law should be provided, 
in order that a judge or commission may de- 
termine upon the necessity of the crossing at 
the particular point asked for, and of the ap- 
propriation of the property. Surely, if a good 
place could be found to cross another road 
where the interchange of business, grade, and 
alignment would all be satisfactory to both 
roads, it ought to be done. 

The obligation to pay a certain fixed sum, 
based upon the amount of cost to which the first 
road is subjected by a grade-crossing, would 
ensure a more careful survey to avoid it, and 
this would be healthy. It would seem no more 
onerous that the road crossing another should 
make good the damage caused by the crossing, 
than that the first road should suffer the loss. 
In most cases that from opposition in business 
would be sufficient. 

The chief difficulties of stops may be greatly 
diminished by a change in the target system 
now in use. I should propose to substitute a 
semaphore signal, to be worked automatically 
with the central signal, for the purpose of block- 
ing, by means of gates, one or other of the tracks 
(as the case may demand) on both sides of the 



STOPS A T CROSSINGS. 1 39 

crossing, at the distance of half a mile from it. 
At crossings thus provided there need be no 
stops when the signal gives notice of open 
gates. Of course, in the contrary case, a full 
stop must be required, not nearer than 200 feet 
nor farther than 800 feet from crossing in Ohio. 
In fact, by eliminating the necessity for a stop, 
except under the above conditions, and by 
making a crossing-frog as easy to pass over as 
any other part of the track, the damage at 
grade becomes so reduced that there will re- 
main comparatively small excuse for contention. 

But, even with the difficulties reduced to a 
minimum, I still maintain that grade crossings 
should be avoided when possible. 

It is not easy to decide in the matter of the 
pre-emption right claimed by a constructed line 
to a certain surveyed and located right of Avay, 
to the exclusion of all other lines, at grade ; but 
it is clear that there can be no right to prevent 
an under or over crossing, with the proviso that 
all masonry or bridging shall be solidly con- 
structed and properly maintained. It should 
be the rule that the last road pay all the ex- 
pense of frogs, targets, cattle-guards, cross-fences, 
watch-houses, watchmen, and maintenance of 
the same. The law of Ohio requires that the 
expense of crossing shall be borne equally by 
the two roads. This law was obtained by a 
partial legislation. 



140 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

The laws relating to crossings vary essentially 
in different States. A national law would much 
simplify matters, while tending to greater se- 
curity of life and property. In point of eco- 
nomy the advantages would be incalculable. 
Railroad companies would not fail to find it im- 
mensely to their interest to make a united effort 
to bring about a uniform legislation throughout 
the country. 

HIGHWAY-CROSSINGS. 

The subject of highway-crossings is of but 
little less importance than that of railroad-cross- 
ings, and their number compared to the latter 
is legion. The same rule should be applied to 
them as in the case of railroad-crossings — always 
to go over or under, if possible. The danger 
to life, limb, and property at all highway-cross- 
ings at grade is very serious. Large sums are 
annually paid by railroad companies for ac- 
cidents caused at these points. These moneys, 
with the cost of watchmen, make up a total 
which represents the iixterest on a sum to be 
counted by hundreds of thousands. It behoves 
railroad companies to look closely into this, and, 
when it is possible, to eliminate all grade high- 
way-crossings as opportunity offers. The road- 
master should be w^atchful to this effect, and 
should recommend it whenever it may be done 
with economy. 



• - CONDITION OF HIGHWAY-CROSSINGS, I4I 

One thing is much neglected — viz., the keep- 
ing of highway grade-crossings in good order. 
The pubUc should never have cause to com- 
plain of the shortcomings of the railroad man- 
agement. The public are patrons of the roads : 
a dangerous crossing causes much irritation. 
Road- masters should see that the public are 
kept in good-humor. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

A WORD TO SUPERINTENDENTS AND ROAD- 
MASTERS. 

Inexperienced Superintendents apt to Appoint Ineffi- 
cient Road-Masters — Road-Masters need a Practical 
Knowledge of Details in Repairs — Their Duties often 
too Multifarious— Section-Masters need Minute In- 
structions — Riding in ** Palace Cars" — Road-Masters 
as Likely to Injure the Road by Zeal for Economy 
AS BY Extravagance. 

There are many railroad superintendents who 
owe their appointments, not to their experience 
in any capacity as railroad men, but to a finan- 
cial interest in the road, or through the favor of 
their stockholding friends. These gentlemen 
frequently make poor selections in the choice of 
men to act as road-masters. They very natu- 
rally suppose that any one who has been found 
capable of acting as engineer or engineer's as- 
sistant will make a good road-master, and to a 
certain extent this supposition is correct. There 
are, however, very few men whose experience 
has been limited to engineering who make good 
road-masters, because they have had no oppor- 
tunity to observe the many important details of 

repairs, which they must leave to the section- 

142 



SELECTION OF ROAD-MASTERS. 143 

masters. These, as a class, do not take as much 
interest in the matter as they should, and gene- 
rally depend on the road-master for instruc- 
tions ; it is therefore important that those who 
act in the latter capacity should be men whose 
practical experience enables them to instruct 
section-masters in all matters in their line of 
duty. When railroad building was in its in- 
fanc}^ or rather in its '' teens," there was a lack 
of experienced railroad men, and many com- 
panies were forced to employ incompetent and 
inexperienced persons. Now, however, the 
case is different, and notwithstanding there are 
so many miles of road now in course of con- 
struction in this country, the supply of good 
men in any capacity is greater than ever before. 
It is not difficult at the present day to procure a 
first class man as road-master ; and as the super- 
intendent has no more important assistant than 
that functionary, it is important that he should be 
very careful in making the appointment. It is 
also important, when a superintendent or en- 
gineer has secured a good road-master, that he 
should not burden him with too many responsi- 
bilities. He is frequently expected to act as 
conductor of a gravel or wood train, as wood 
agent, agent for the supply of bridge and fenc- 
ing timber and lumber, besides a host of other 
duties, which he cannot perform without neglect- 
ing important matters on the track. A super- 



144 THE ROAD-MASTERS ASSISTANT. 

intendent should never require a road-master to 
perform any service unconnected with track 
repairs, if it can be avoided. Tiie business of 
road-master, if performed thoroughly, requires 
the constant attention of a wide-awake, ener- 
getic man, and it is not economy to require him 
to perform many duties outside of his depart- 
ment. A man who has had practical experience 
on track repairs, first as a common laborer, then 
as a second hand, and finally as section-master, 
and who has keen observation and business tact, 
will make a better road-master than one who is 
a professional engineer with no other qualifica- 
tions. On the other hand, the engineer who has 
sought and obtained the practical experience 
will naturally make the most efficient road- 
master. 

Road- masters are not generally careful enough 
to give full instruction to section masters ; what- 
ever particular is thus overlooked by the former 
is apt to be left undone by the latter, much to 
the disadvantage of the company. 

It is not, of course, always the fault of the 
road-master that the track is in a bad condition, 
because sometimes, when, the ties are decayed 
and require removal, the superintendent will 
not furnish the necessary material for repairs 
in the way of new ties or iron, and the road- 
master is consequently restricted in the per- 
formance of his duty. 



TR UE AND FALSE ECONOMY. 1 4 5 

But perhaps no greater cause can be assigned 
for the bad condition of railroad track throusrh- 
out the country than the desire on the part of 
the road-master to make his account as light as 
possible. It is not expected that a road-master 
will either freely use the company's money to 
build up his own reputation, or that he will 
practise economy to such an extent as to injure 
the road ; but it is sometimes the case that he has 
full permission to order all the material he ma}^ 
think necessary, and he will now and then abuse 
this privilege. That is to say, he will order 
more new ties or iron than are really necessar}^ 
for the sake of establishing a reputation as 
a first-class road-master, which reputation is 
gained at the company's expense. There are 
others who take a different view of the matter, 
and, seeking to gain a name for economy, do 
not order as many ties or as much iron as are 
really necessary for the good of the com.pan3\ 
These extreme practices have a common object 
in view — viz., to make the reputation of road- 
masters — while both are fatal to the interests of 
companies. 

A section-master cannot be expected to keep 
track in good order without being supplied with 
the necessary material, and when that supply 
is furnished it should be the business of the 
road-master to see that such material is properly 
used. If he has any section-master v/ho does 



146 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

not thoroughly understand how to use the ma- 
terial properly, he should give as much of his 
time as possible to the instruction of such men 
and the supervision of their work. 

The engineer or superintendent who may 
have charge of the track will do well to gather 
his road-masters together and discuss with them 
every subject pertinent to their duties. A mu- 
tual interchange of knowledge and experience 
is of vast value. It begets faith, a feeling of 
common humanity, devotion to duty. This is 
economy ; this is safety. 



CHAPTER XVIL 

ORGANIZATION. 

Bankruptcy the Result of a Lack of Fundamental Order 
— Discharge of the Engineer before the Entire Com- 
pletion OF THE Road a Fatal Mistake — Incompetent 
Superintendents — Harmony between the Engineer and 
Superintendent necessary to the Prosperity of a Road — 
No " Supervisor" to come between the Chief-Engineer 
AND the Road-Masters — Foremen to Work with their 
Men — Engineers should Instruct their Assistants. 

The subject of organization of the engineer- 
ing department of a railroad has been very much 
neglected. Financial trouble and bankruptcy 
have been the almost universal results of this 
absence of fundamental order. 

The moment that the track of a new road is 
laid, eyen before the switches and frogs are put 
in, the engineer is generall}^ discharged, thus 
removing one who might, with his knowledge, 
save ten times his salary yearly ; some mercan- 
tile friend is put in as superintendent ; ^ he turns 

* As a matter of course I cannot be supposed to refer to gentlemen filling 
this position whose fitness for it is undisputed, and who, in many cases, are 
scientific and practical engineers, who have obtained their advancement by 
their earnest work and devotion to the interests confided to their charge by the 
companies which have employed them through a series of years. I am sure 
that these will agree with me with regard to the class to which the superin- 
tendent above mentioned belongs. 

147 



148 THE RG AD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT 

over the completion of the sidings, the nice 
work of adjusting frogs and switches, to the so- 
called ''practical man," who, as a general rule, 
is well pleased to fall under the authority of one 
who knows nothing of the business, and he, 
with his superior, falls into the usual habit of 
denouncing the engineer now set aside as an 
unnecessary personage on a completed road. 
The result is easily foreseen : the road-master is 
given a large territory to supervise, and, not 
having time for his duties, he rides repeatedly 
over the track in a Pullman palace car, from 
which he throws frequent paper pellets to the 
foremen, with whom he rarely converses. He 
knows no more of the laws governing the ele- 
vation of curves, the adjustment of frogs and 
switches, than his superintendent ; consequently, 
the appliances of science are thrown away and 
the rule of the thumb substituted. The curves 
are elevated by the eye, each foreman for him- 
self, ignorant even of the degree of the radius 
of the curve ; the frogs are sighted in, and more 
money is lost in one year by oscillation of roll- 
ing-stock alone than would pay for a select 
corps of experts, to say nothing of a good engi- 
neer. There are a thousand ways, not now our 
province to detail, through which waste and 
misfortune are engendered by ignorance and 
jealousy in the management of a road ; the 
object here is to point out a proper and sensible 



QUALIFICATIOXS OF THE EXGIXEER, 1 49 

plan of organization of the engineering depart- 
ment of a road, and by that I mean all that per- 
tains to that branch, and more particularly that 
which relates to track. 

One fact is undeniable— viz., the best results 
are obtained from theory allied to practice ; 
therefore he who understands principles and is 
so constituted as to apply them in practice is the 
man best fitted for any vv^ork, and especially 
railroad work. In addition to theory and prac- 
tice of his profession, the managing engineer of 
a road needs still other qualities — industry, pru- 
dence, and the capacity to select and govern are 
eminently essential to him. Through the latter 
quality especially he is enabled to bring about 
that sympathy and harmony between himself 
and his employees of every grade without 
which no department can be satisfactorily ad- 
ministered. 

No man should ever be discharged except for 
cause or on the reduction of force. It is a 
crime against human nature to remove one man 
to put another in his place from mere caprice 
and favoritism, and this crime must bring a 
retribution upon the head of the guilty. 

The duties of a road are properly divided 
into two grand departments — transportation and 
engineering. To the former generally belongs 
everything in relation to the movement of trains, 
maintenance of cars and machinery, with the 



I 50 THE ROAD-MASTERS ASSISTANT. 

purchase of cars, fuel, the selection of landlords 
for eating-houses, and the general direction of 
all subordinates in the department."^ 

The engineering department takes in the 
track and everything relating to it, with the 
purchase of all material for the construction 
and maintenance of the same, the purchase, 
sale, or lease of all lands, construction of all 
water-stations and all buildings and docks, 
mairttenance of buildings and other property, 
and all questions relating to engineering and 
contracts bearing upon engineering. 

There are many questions of a delicate nature 
in which the line between the superintendent 
and the -engineer is very faiotly drawn. It is, 
therefore, proper and courteous to consult with 
the superintendent in all cases where the ques- 
tion bears upon transportation. Among them 
are also all leases and rents, and all new sidings. 
The superintendent should be a party to be 
consulted as to the expediency of leases of any 
land, construction of any new siding or new 
building, or, in fact, anything which would 
change, interrupt, or interfere with his mode of 
business. There is another strong reason for 
consultation — viz.,'^ in a multitude of counsellors 
there is wisdom,'' and the head of a department 
who understands this best will not only have 

* Some railroad companies have deemed it wise to put the locomotive and 
car departments under persons of technical as well as practical education. 



THE DEPAR TMENT A CCO UNTS, I 5 I 

the most harmony, but will always avoid what 
is called ** hot water." The president is umpire 
in all questions arising in either department, 
and settles all questions where any conflict of 
opinion occurs. The two heads of departments 
should report directly to the president. 

The organization of the engineering depart- 
ment will here be principally treated. 

The accounts of the department should be 
kept in the office of the engineer, under his own 
supervision. The principal advantage in this is 
that he is able to make his own estimates with- 
out having to refer to the auditor's department, 
avoiding needless delays and occasional compli- 
cations. It is of vital importance to have re- 
liable accounts of yearly expenditures for con- 
stant reference ; no intelligent economy can be 
practised without a thorough knowledge of the 
cost in the past, and a comparison of the same 
with the present outlay; the experience of 
other roads is a good guide, and is often found 
of great utility. Economy, in fact, takes the 
first place, for without it all knowledge, practi- 
cal and scientific, is considered valueless on a 
railroad. Constant comparisons of accounts, 
with graphic illustrations of them, tend to eco- 
nomy. 

Second in point of importance are right-of- 
%vay and leases of land. No road of more than 
one hundred miles in length can be successful 



15^ THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

in taking care of its lands, unless it employs one 
person, a civil engineer, to take charge of these 
branches of business ; it requires close attention 
not only to obtain what the road is entitled to, 
but to keep possession of what it actually owns. 
The number of those who fancy they have a 
right *' to squat '' on railroad property is very 
great, and it requires not only the eyes of a 
vigilant engineer to preserve it, but those of 
every man of his and other departments. 

No road having a chief engineer should have 
any other engineer or general road-master to 
come between him and the road-master. 

Many companies form the road into *' road- 
master divisions '' of lOO miles or more. This is 
wrong; no man can take charge of loo miles 
and manage his division properly without one 
or two assistants. It is therefore better at once 
to make the road into 50-mile divisions, and 
have but one man, a road-master, w^ith the fore- 
men responsible to him, and he in turn respon- 
sible to the engineer. This distance is long 
enough, as the road-master should walk over 
his division at least once a month. 

A foreman should have five miles generally 
and in winter the force, with a foreman, should 
not exceed one man to the mile for three million 
tons traffic per month, and less if below that. 

If steel rails be used entirely, a reduction of 
two fifths of the force is entirely practicable, 



FOREMEN SHOULD WORK WITH THEIR MEN, I 53 

with equal safety, by using hand- cars of hght 
weight."^ 

Foremen should all work with their men ; 
the practice of having one man to *' boss " three 
or four, and not to work with them, is an error 
which is too prevalent, and the sooner railroad 
companies change this system the better it will 
be for all parties. 

The road-masters should estimate and mea- 
sure, with the wood and tie inspector, all tiea 
and wood purchased. 

All roads more than 400 miles in length should 
have a wood and tie inspector, and a man in 
charge of fences. 

Roads of less than that length may have that 
work done by road-masters ; but it is safest and 
best, in all cases where practicable, to have that 
responsibility upon separate individuals, w^ith a 
joint service. 

There should be likewise one man to have 
entire charge of the water-stations, the plumbers 
to be under him. 

There should be one bridge foreman or super- 



* The economy of light hand-cars is very great, especially in these days of 
steel rails. One-third less labor can be used when steel rails with light hand- 
cars are used. Hand-cars of the present pattern are too heavy, and require 
generally not less than four men to handle them, and even more upon Eome 
roads — for instance, on a broad-gauge (6 ft.) road, where they weighed until 
recently i,ood lbs. The hand-cars for the latter class of roads should be re- 
duced to 5CO lbs., with friction rollers. It will ihen be easy to lengthen the 
sections, as well as to use a less number of hands, with much more comfort to 
the laboring man. — C. L. 



154 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

intendent to 400 miles of road — this depending 
upon the number, importance, and character of 
the bridges — and a foreman and two carpenters 
for each 100 miles, to do the necessary repairs 
of the line. 

Promptness in action and in correspondence 
of all kinds on a railroad is its safeguard. 

No road can be effectually managed unless 
every work, in the office and out of it, is prompt- 
ly and efficiently done. 

No road can be economically managed unless 
foremen watch faithfully the wear of the differ- 
ent rails, and can give intelligent answers in re- 
lation to them. 

The intelligent and prudent engineer will in- 
struct his assistants ; the prudent and intelligent 
road-master w411 seek to teach his foremen, the 
foreman his men, regardless of all question of 
preferment, and thus all will work together to the 
interests confided to them, consequently to the 
advancement of their own ultimate advantage. 
'' Be sober, be vigilant." 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

TRACKMEN'S TOOLS. 

Variety of Track Tools— Different Weights— Descrip- 
tion OF some of the Tools Illustrated — The Cord 
Clamp — Track Gauge and Le\:el combined — Rail Saw 
— Track Jack — List of Tools required by Road- 
Gang — Illustrations. 

The tools of a railroad are many and various. 
It would seem sufficient to present here some 
of the most important. Their weights, too, 
vary, and some track-men use and prefer light 
tools, while others choose the heavy. We have 
endeavored to take a happy mean in the 
weights. Tamping picks vary from 5 to 9 lbs., 
spike mauls from 4 to 13 lbs., etc. There are 
several new tools here presented. One of the 
most important and simplest is the cord-clamp 
for determining super-elevation on curves. The 
clamp is merely used for holding the. cord to 
the rail, so that the track-man can go to the 
centre and get the middle ordinate, which gives 
at once the elevation necessary for the degree 
of curve, if the cord be of the proper length, 
viz., 53 feet for 6-feet gauge, 45 feet for 5 -feet 
gauge, 43 feet for 4 feet 8^ in. gauge, and 37.5 

feet for a 3-feet gauge. 

155 



156 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

The claw-bar is a model bar, and will draw a 
spike without bending it. 

The Huntington track-gauge is certainl}^ 
without exception, the only track-gauge known 
that fulfils all of the requirements of what a 
gauge should be. 

The track-gauge and level combined is a very 
light seasoned pine rod, i in. by 2}^ in., and 
was gotten up especially for the road-masters to 
test their track in level and gauge while walk- 
ing over the track daily ; but it was found to be 
so handy and useful as well as cheap (cost but 
75 cents) that the track-men everywhere called 
for them. By using the cord and clamp with 
this instrument it is an easy matter to test the 
gauge and level. 

There are some other useful tools — the jim 
crow, for straightening rails, and a curving 
apparatus — which no road should be with- 
out. 

In these da3^s of close economy one of the 
most important tools is the rail-saw. Until 
lately we have been wasting money in repairing 
rails by the wholesale. Now the wiser course 
has obtained to repair but few rails, and cut up 
the others with a cold saw, repunch, and send 
out the pieces. A rail-saw is probably the best 
labor and material-saving machine upon a 
road. Next to it is a new track-jack, invented 
in Da3^ton, O., which saves a large number of 



LIST OF TOOLS L^OR ROAD-GANG, 



157 



roosters from sitting on the end of a long lever 
while raising track. 

Good tools are of vast importance, and much 
money can be saved to a railroad company by 
watching with jealous care every improvement 
and adopting that which has been proven. 

Engravings of some of the principal track 
tools are shown on the following pages. 



LIST OF TOOLS REQUIRED BY A ROAD-GANG CON- 
SISTING OF FOREMAN AND FIVE MEN. 



Adzes, 2 

'' Handles,. ... 2 

Axe, Shimming, . . . . i 

" Chopping, .... I 

'' Helves, i 

Brooms, ...... i 

Brush Hook, i 

Car Chains, 2 

Chisels, 

Claw-bars, 3 

Cold Chisels, 12 

Cord-clamps (see p. 159), i 

Crov7-bars, 4 

Cross-cut Saws. . . . . i 

Cur\nng Hooks, . . . i 
Ditching Cars, .... 
Drawing Knives, . . . 

Drills, 

Files, 

Flags, 2 

Grindstones, i 

Hand Barrows, ..... 

Hand-Saws, ..... i 



El 



Hand Trucks, 
'* Cars, . . 

Hatchets, . . . 

Lanterns, White, 
Red, . 

Line for measuring 
tion (see p. 159), 

Naii Flammers, . 

Oil-cans, . . 

Padlocks, . . . 

Picks, .... 
** Handles, . 

Post Augers, . . 

Punches, . . , 

Rail Tongs, pairs, 

Raising Bar, . . 

Rakes, .... 

Ratchet Drills, . 

Screw Spike Wrenches 

Scythes, . . 

Scythe Snaths, 

Scythe Stones, 

Shackle Bars, 



eva 



i;8 



THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT 



Shovels, 6 

Sledges, 2 

" Handles, . , . 
Snow Shovels, .... 

Spades, 

Spike Hammers, . . . 
Handles, 

Squares, 

Stone Hammers, , , , 
Straightening Machine, . i 
Tamping Bars, .... 4 

'* PickS; .... 5 



Tool Boxes, . 
Torpedoes, 
Track Jacks, . 

*' Levers, 

*' Gauges, 

** Levels, 
Water Kegs, . 

** Pails, . 

'* Dippers, 
Wheel '' 
Wrenches, . . 

*' Monkey, 



12 

I 
I 

I 
I 

I 

T 

4 

I 



Tape-lines, i 

Besides the tools mentioned above, the road- 
master should have at his headquarters enough 
to meet Tmj emergency that may occur by rea- 
son of a probable wash-out, slide, or other trou- 
ble, as well as to supply the ordinary demands 
of his foremen for new tools to replace those 
worn out. 




RA TCHET SCREW-JACK, AS USED IN CURVING RAILS. 




TRACK LEVEL. 



TRACKMEN'S TOOLS 



159 





RAIL-BENDER, OR JIM CROW, 




RATCHET-WRENCH AND DRILL, AS MADE BY WILLIAMS 

TOOL COMPANY 

TOO 




JOYCE'S LEVER TRACK-JACK. 




J^A KEY'S VICTOR TRACK-DRILL. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

RULES AND TABLES. 

Curving Rails with Lever and Curving Hook — Method 
OF finding approximately the Degree of Curvature 
required to reach any desired object, Point of 
Curve being Known— Practical Method of Finding 
Proportion of Frog — Rules for Placing Frogs in 
Cross -over Track where the two Tracks are 
Straight and Parallel — Tables for Elevation of 
Outer Rail on Curves — Table for Determining De- 
gree of Curvature and Elevation of Outer Rail, 
BY Versed Sine of 43-FOOT Chords — Bills for Frogs 
and Switch Timbers. 

CURVING RAILS.^ • 

This is something not very well understood ; 
at least there seems to be no regular system for 
doing it, and almost every track-man has a way 
of his own. Some drop the rails on blocks ; 
others place a block under each end of the rail 
and have a gang of men stand on it to spring it 
down while one of them pounds it from end to 
end with a heavy sledge. The amount of 
damage done to rails in this way is very great, 
especially to steel rails. In many instances 

they are cracked or seriously weakened by 

«k 

* The directions under this head have been prepared by Mr. M. J. 
Mclnama, one of the road-masters of the Atlantic & Great Western Kail- 
road. 

162 



CURVIXG J^AILS. 




163 




CURVING RAIL WITH LEVER AND CURVING HOOK. 



164 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT 

dropping or striking them, and the defect is 
not discovered until they are found broken in 
the track. Some track-men have an idea that 
if a steel rail breaks by striking it with a heavy 
sledge it is not fit to put in the track, and hence 
that curving by sledges is a safeguard. But 
this view is quite erroneous. A rail may lie in 
the track many years and not receive a shock 
as great as that caused by the blow of a sledge. 

A better plan for curving rails is by the aid of 
the curving hook and lever, shown on the pre- 
ceding page. A tie, B (see preceding page), is 
placed across the track under each end of the 
rail, e, which is to be curved. The hook, D, is 
then slipped under the main track rail between 
the two ties about six feet from the end of the 
rail to be curved, and the men pry down on it 
Vv^ith the lever, A. This process can be repeat- 
ed at any point on the rail, as may be required. 

The hook, C, is made of i^-in. round iron, 
eight inches long and six inches wide. The 
base is 4^ inches wide, to fit under the rail, and 
both ends are turned upwards i ^ inches. The 
lever, A^ is a common track lever 10 feet long. 
The foreman should have a string to stretch 
taut from end to end and measure off from it 
the amount of curvature required. If he is a 
practical track-man, it is not necessary to mea- 
sure every rail ; he can tell nearly enough by 
the eye after curving two or three for any 



CURVIXG RAILS. 1 65 

curve. The average time consumed per rail by 
this process is not more than three minutes. 
Each rail should be curved uniformly and free 
from kinks, so as to make a perfect curve with- 
out springing the rail into line by the spikes. 
The quarter-points should always be curved 
before the centre, for in many instances the 
centre curves at the same time w^ith the qviar- 
ter, thus saving so much time. The offset from 
the string at quarter-points is always three- 
quarters of the centre offset. 

Some of the worst accidents on record have 
been caused by broken rails, and every man in 
charge of track should deem it his duty to use 
all means in his power to see that the work of 
curving and handling steel rails is performed in 
such manner as to reduce all chances of injury 
to a mxinimum. There is no doubt but that 
very many steel rails found broken in the track 
have been injured before they Avere laid, either 
by letting them fall on top of each other when 
unloading, or by striking and dropping them on 
blocks in the process of curving. 

A METHOD OF OBTAINING APPROXIMATELY TITS 
DEGREE OF CURVATURE REQUIRED TO REACH 
ANY DESIRED OBJECT, THE POINT OF CURVE 
BEING KNOWN. 

The table on page 169 gives the perpendicular 
distances from points on the tangent lOOj 200, 



1 66 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

300, 400, and 500 feet from the point of curve, 
measured along the tangent, to opposite points 
on curves described with several different radii. 

In the diagram the line A B represents a tan- 
gent, and the lines A H, A D, A E, and A F 
3^, 6"", 15°, and 30"^ curves respectively. A Bis 
divided into spaces 100 feet in length, and the 
perpendicular distances from the points on the 
tangent to the curves are marked, such as B H 
=96.7 feet; B D = 2i2. i feet. 

For a practical illustration of the manner of 
using the table, suppose A B represents a rail 
on a straight main track, and, starting at a point 
as A, it is required to reach with a side track an 
object situated, say, at D ; first it is necessary to 
find what curve to use, and then to lay out that 
curve. From the starting-point. A, measure 
along the rail to a point, B, opposite the desired 
object, D, then measure the perpendicular dis- 
tance from the point on the rail to the object, or 
measure B D. At the top of the table look for 
the number that will correspond the nearest 
with the first measurement, or, what is the same 
thing, use the column headed with the nearest 
even 100 feet to that measurement. Then run 
the eye down the column and find the number 
nearest the second measurement; running along 
the line to the first column on the left, the cor- 
responding degree of curvature is found, in the 
second column the radius. Thus in the ex- 



TO FIND CURVE FROM TANGENT, 



167 




1 68 THE ROAD MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

ample the first measurement will be 600 feet, the 
second 21 2.1 feet. The curve is therefore a 6°, 
radius 955 teet. 

To lay off the curve, start at A and measure 
towards B, marking every 100 feet on the rail ; 
then at each of these marks measure the cor- 
responding- perpendicular distances found in the 
table for the desired curve, and place a stake at 
the points so found ; thus, in the example, at the 
first mark measure 5.2 feet ; second, 21.2 feet ; at 
the third 48.4 feet, ^to. The line of the perpen- 
dicular can be obtained with sufficient accuracy 
by placing the Huntington gauge on the track 
and sighting along the handle. In this way 
points can be found sufficiently close together 
to lay out the curve, which of course is that of 
the outside rail. 

If the main track is curved, the measurements 
may be taken on the prolongation of the tan- 
gent at the starting-point, if practicable ; or if 
the degree of curve is known, they may be taken 
on the curve, and the perpendicular distances of 
the known curve and the desired curve maj^ be 
added or subtracted, according as the sidetrack 
runs outside or inside the curve. Due allow- 
ance must be made, however, for the difference 
of measuring along a curve and its tangent, and 
for the fact that the distances in the table are 
perpendicular to the tangent at the starting- 
point, not to the curve. 



TO FIND CURVE FROM TAKGENT. 
TABLE. 



169 



Degree 






rerpendicular dista 


nces at 




of curva- 


Radius. 












ture. 




Joo feet. 


203 feet. 


300 feet. 


400 feet. 


500 feet. 


I 


5w30 


0.9 


3.5 


7.8 


14.0 


21.9 


2 


2,865 


1.7 


7.0 


15.8 


28.1 


44.0 


^3 


1,910 


2.6 


10.5 


23.8 


42.3 


66.6 


*4 


T,433 


3.5 


14.1 


31.8 


57.0 


90.5 




1,146 


4.4 


17.6 


40.0 


72.2 


114.9 


955 


5.2 


21.2 


48.4 


87.8 


141.5 


§7 


S19 


6.1 


24.3 


56.^ 


104.4 


1 70. 1 


s 


717 


7.0 


28.5 


65.8 


122. 1 


203.1 


9 


637 


7.9 


32.2 


75.1 


141. 2 


242.3 


||to 


574 


8.8 


36.0 


84.7 


162.4 


292.1 


II 


522 


9-7 


39.9 


94.4 


186.6 


372.1 


1[I2 


478 


10.6 


43.9 


105.9 


216.3 




13 


442 


11.5 


47.9 


II7.4 


253.9 




14 


410 


12.4 


52.1 


130.5 


320.0 




15 


3S3 


13.3 


56.4 


144.9 






16 


359 


14.2 


60.9 


161.8 






18 


320 


16.0 


70.2 


208.7 






20 


233 


18.0 


80.6 








22 


262 


19.8 


92.8 








24 


241 


21.7 


106.6 








26 


222 


23.3 


125.7 








28 


207 


25.3 


153.7 






-. 


30 


193 


28.0 










32 


181 


30.1 










34 


171 


32.3 










'\t 


162 


34.5 











• Corresponds nearly with "AA " frog, 6 ft. gauge. 

t Corresponds nearly with " AA " frog, 4 ft, .8^ in. gauge. 

X Corresponds nearly with "A " frog, 6 ft. gauge. 

§ Corresponds nearly with "A " frog, 6 ft. gauge. 

II Corresponds nearly with " B " frog, 6 ft. gauge. 

^ Corresponds nearly with " B " frog, 4 ft. 8^2 ir». gauge. 



The rule for calculating the above table, or 
any similar one, is as foUc^ws : From the square 
of the radius subtract the square of the distance 



170 



THE ROAD MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 



from point of curve to foot of perpendicular, 
extract the square root of the remainder, and 
subtract the number so obtained from the 
radius ; the result will give the perpendicular 
distance. 



TABLE OF MIDDLE ORDINATES FOR BENDING 
RAILS TO BE LAID ON CURVES. 





1 Angle. 
Radius. 


LENGTHS OF RAILS IN FEET. 


p 


30 


28 


26 


24 


22 


20 


18 


16 


14 


12 


10 


De 


ig Feet. 


In. 

.120 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


~I^ 

.024 


In. 
.012 


In. 




5 11460 


.096 


.072 


.060 


.048 


.048 


.056 


.024 


.012 


1 


5,730 


.240 


.192 


.156 


.132 


.108 


.096 


.0-2 


.060 


.04S 


.036 


.024 


X 


5 3,820 


.348 


.312 


.252 


.216 


.192 


.156 


.120 


.096 


.072 


.048 


.Q36 


2 


2,863 


.456 


.408 


.348 


.300 


.252 


.204 


.168 


.•32 


.096 


.072 


.048 


2 


5 2,292 


.588 


.516 


.444 


•372 


.3M 


.264 


.216 


.168 


.120 


.0S4 


.060 


3 


1,910 


.696 


.612 


.528 


•444 


.372 


.312 


.264 


.204 


.144 


.108 


.072 


3 


5 1,637 


.840 


.732 


.624 


.516 


.444 


.372 


.300 


.240 


.180 


.132 


.096 


4 


1.433 


.948 


.828 


.720 


.600 


.504 


.420 


.348 


.276 


.216 


.156 


.108 


4 


5 I»27A 

1,146 


1.056 


•924 


.804 


.672 


.564 


.468 


.384 


.312 


.240 


.lio 


.120 


5 


1.188 


1.032 


.888 


.756 


.636 


.528 


.420 


.348 


.264 


.192 


.132 


5 


5 1,042 


1.296 


1. 128 


.984 


.840 


.708 


.576 


.468 


.384 


.288 


.216 


.144 


6 


95S-4 


1.404 


1.224 


1.056 


.912 


.768 


.624 


.504 


.408 


.312 


.228 


.156 


6 


5 882 


1.536 


1.341 


1. 164 


.984 


.828 


.684 


.552 


.444 


.3^.6 


.252 


.168 


7 


819 


1.644 


1.440 


T.248 


1 056 


.888 


.732 


.588 


.468 


.360 


.264 


.180 


7 
8 


5 764.5 


1.752 


1.524 


1.332 


1.128 


.948 


.780 


.636 


.504 


.334 


.2^-8 


.192 


716.3 


1.896 


1.644 


1.428 


1.200 


1.020 


.840 


.672 


.540 


.408 


.300 


.204 


8 


5 6746 


1.992 


1.740 


i.5'2 


1.272 


1.080 


.888 


.720 


.576 


.432 


.324 


.216 


9 


637.3 


2.100 


1.836 


1..S96 


1.344 


1.T40 


.936 


.756 


.600 


.456 


.348 


.223 


9 


5 603.8 


2.244 


1.956 


1.692 


1.428 


1.212 


.996 


.804 


.648 


.504 


.372 


.252 


10 


573-7 


2.352 


2.052 


1.7/6 


1.500 


1.272 


1.044 


.852 


.684 


.540 


.384 


.264 


11 


521.7 


2.592 


2.256 


1.956 


1.668 


1.404 


1.152 


.936 


.756 


.568 


•432 


.288 


12 


478.3 


2.832 


2.472 


2.148 


1.812 


1.536 


1.260 


1.020 


.828 


.636 


.468 


.312 


13 


441.7 


3.04B 


2664 


2.304 


1.956 


1.656 


1.356 


T.104 


.900 


.684 


.504 


.336 


14 


4T0.3 


3.300 


2.868 


2.484 


2.100 


1.776 


1.464 


r.i88 


.960 


.732 


.540 


.360 


15 


383.1 


3.540 


3.084 


2.676 


2.2«i6 


1.908 


X.572 


1.272 


1.020 


.780 


.588 


.396 


16 


359-3 


3.756 


3.276 


2.832 


2.400 


2.040 


1.668 


1.356 


1.092 


.840 


.624 


.420 


^l 


338.3 


3.99^ 


3.480 


3.024 


2.556 


2.160 


1.776 


1.440 


1.152 


.838 


.65o 


.444 


18 


319.6 


4.212 


3.672 


3.180 


2.700 


2.280 


T.872 


1.524 


1.224 


.936 


.696 


.468 


19 


302.9 


4.452 


3.888 


3.360 


2.856 


2.412 


1.980 


i.6o3 


1.296 


.984 


.732 


.493 


20 


287.9 


4.704 


4.092 


3.552 


3.000 


2.544 


2.688 


1.692 


1.368 


1.044 


.792 


.528 



Note. — This table is slightly mo'dified in form from that prepared by Mr. John C, 
Trautwine for his ** Civil Engineers' Pocket-Book." 



FINDING PROPOR TION OF FROG. I'll 

PRACTICAL METHOD OF OBTAINING THE PRO- 
PORTION OF A FROG. 

Take a stick, pencil, piece of paper, key, knife, 
or anything at hand of any length less than or 
equal to the distance across the head of the frog, 
H D, and measure across the tongue at any 
point ?it H D or between c and P, say A By 
where the width may be equal to 3^our measure, 
then see how man}^ times that width is con- 
tained in the distance from x io P : this will 
give the proportion of the frog. 

Example, — Take a pencil ; you find it mea- 
sures across the tongue exactly at A B, and 
you find that it measures eleven times from x 
to P : the frog is therefore a i to ii frog. 

^' a 




If you have a tape or rule, measure across 
H Dy and then measure from c to P : the latter 
divided by the former gives the proportion. 

JExamp/e. — Measure H I) =: 6 inches, C P = 

66 inches. — = ii. Proportion, i to ii. 
6 

RULES FOR PLACING FROGS IN A CROSS-OVER 
TRACK WHERE THE TWO TRACKS ARE STRAIGHT 
AND Px\RALLEL. 

The following rules have been prepared by 
R. French, C.E. : 



172 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

Suppose the cross-over is to be put in from 
the track A L to the track M G, figure No. i, 
and the starting point to be at A, the position 
of the first frog C can be readily obtained from 
the tabulated form on page 174, and the only 
question is to find the position of the second 
frog D, which is given by the following rule : 

Rule. — To find the distance that the point of 
second frog is to be placed in advance of the 
point of the first frog, multiply the figure of the 
frog by the difference betiveen the space between 
tracks and tJie gauge. 

Frogs are denominated by the following pro- 
portionals: I to II, I to 10, I to 9, etc., meaning 
the ratio of the heel to the length of the frog ; 
and the expression in the rule — ^^ figure of the 
frog'* — denotes the figures 11, 10, 9, etc., in 
each respective frog. 

In the above rule, it is assumed that the track 
between the points of the two frogs is straight ; 
and in every case this should be so, unless the 
space between the tracks is greater than thirty- 
five or forty feet, when it may be necessary to 
introduce two curves and a short tangent, or a 
reverse curve, so as to save trafck-room ; but 
such cases occur very seldom, and when they 
do they ought to be put in by the aid of an 
instrument. 

The application of the above rule is very 
easy, and can be used by any trackman having 



TO PLACE FROGS IN A CROSS-OVER. 1/3 

a moderate education. Suppose gauge is 6 
feet, and the space between the tracks 8 feet, 
and two i to 9 frogs are employed. Then the 
difference between space and gauge is 2 feet, 
and 2 feet multiplied by the figure of the frog- 
gives 18 feet, that the point of the second frog 
is to be placed in advance of the point of the 
first frog. 

This distance must be measured along the rail, 
as in figure No. i, from C to E, and then the 
point of the second frog will be at D, on rail 
M G, square across from E. 

A very good method for finding the point D 
(opposite to E) is by means of the Huntington 
gauge, "which will give the true direction of the 
perpendicular. 

When the space exceeds 9 feet, it is well to 
use a frog. having a large angle, such as i to 9 
or I to 8, and when the space is 15 feet or over, 
a T to 6 frog may be used to advantage, so as to 
shorten the cross-over track. By carefully ex- 
amining figure No. i the proof of the rule will 
be obvious. 

As the tracks are parallel, and the track be- 
tween the points of the two frogs is straight, 
the two frogs employed must have equal angles. 
The distance E H is the difference between 
space and gauge, and by comparing the two 
similar triangles, C E H and C e h (the latter 
of which represents the frog, i to 10, i to 11, 



i^ 



^ 



h ^1 



1'^ 



H 

to 



C^ CO M CO Cl CO W CO n a w 



coo CO 

M l-l 1-1 



Ol <N C^ C<^ xo 



M F 



O h-i CO O -^ c*-: 
~r^ O M »r: CO ►-• 



W K-t C> CO rd^ 



rtO O w CO 
ca (N M -:^ u-> 



V 


^^-^n-Ttri-TtTf^^ 


r^ 


o 

1— ( 


COO 

1— 1 (— I 




IT) CO 


W CO l-l 
CO ^O 




M 


r^ w 


r^ M 


t^ 


M 


r^ r^ t^ 


CO 


M 


XT) Qsrst <^ 

M r-l Ol C^ 


csi c«-) CO 


O VH 


o 


o 


O O 
M M 


O O 


O 
1— t 


o 

1-4 


O 

M 


o o 

t-t H 



Q^COf^^-l voO^COt^i-i I^H 
M i-i Ol O) M C-iCO-^u-^cO 



r^Mr>.Mt^Mr>M m m 



M IT) O 
w h- cq 



-t O coco W I^ in w 
M c^ CO CO 'i- -ro O 



^*^ CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO 

"a r^ N 1^ a r^ « r^ c^ M c^ 

M M c-4 oi cocort'sf'ior^o 



o oo oo oo oooo 

"co O -^ O int-fO' W r^ON 
M Hi w coco-^rfiomr^M- 






> GJ 



i-ijc? T-:JM i-i^l '-^M 

O O r^ r^oo CO C^ O O W xr> 



O o O O O O 
'^O CI in r^ O c^ 



o o o o o 

vi i^ O O \n 

HH M M CO '+ 





O 


O w 
mco0^cOmm0^c-^c<^ 


o 


o 


M inco M -^ r^ o M -i- M 

M h-i M t-l M CO u-> 


vd 


o 


OOOOOOOOOO 


" 


o 


coo O C^ toco M ri-O ri- 
M HH t-i CJ M CO ir> 



o o o o o o 

"o CO t-^ O -1- r-- 



O O O O O 
M -i-co c^ CO 

Cl M C^ ^O 



OoOOOOOOO O O 



O '^co c« O O 

M l-l M 



c< c^ 



c^ oo a 

CO rt r^ 



OoCOOOOOOCO 



o 


Tt O cooo 

M l-H 


c^ r-« M o -^ M 
c^ c* CO CO inco 


^o 

^o 


o o o o 

XT) O in O 

1^ l-H 01 


o o o o o 

vn O vn O O O 
M CO CO -J- O O 



o o o O o o 
"O m M o w r-- 

!-■ M c<i c^ 



O O O O O 



cooo 

CO CO 



-f-O 

TtO 







•^w,--^^^-^- 




d-*"*", •'^, --""*"* 




? ■" y 


r-jri i-':i r-lM H^» 




f .^ fe ,-3 


O o r^ i^co CO o CT" O ci in 




K-i l-H l-l 



CROSS-OVER ON A CURVE, 175 

etc., as the case may be), it will be seen that 
the distance E G must necessarily be the same 
number of times E H as the number or figure 
of the frog — that is to say, lo times, ii times, 
etc. 

When the two tracks which are to be con- 
nected by a cross-over are on a curve, the rule 
is precisely the same, only in that case the 
track from C to H, Fig. i, instead of being 
straight, mitst have the same curve as the main 
tracks. This is necessary in any event if we 
are to use similar frogs in each track, which is 
always desirable, and it has the further advan- 
tage of making the rule general for all cases. 

Doubtless it will be considered by some that 
there is no necessity of a rule for putting in 
a cross-over track ; that a trackman's e3'e is 
accurate enough. It is true that trackmen can 
line very accurately with the eye ; but no mat- 
ter how good and well trained the eye may be, 
if there be not something definite to start from, 
there cannot be correct lining done. It is im- 
possible to continue the line of a frog to any 
degree of accuracy when there is nothing to 
guide the eye but the line of a frog, v/hich is 
only four or five feet, and that often not straight 
nor well defined. So it becomes imperative to 
employ a rule in putting in a cross-over. The 
knowledge of the position of the second frog 
before lining the first frog will expedite the 



1/6 THE ROAD'M ASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

work, as it determines Avhere the frog-timbers 
of the second frog are to be laid. 



TABLES FOR THE ELEVATION OF THE OUTER 
RAIL ON CURVES. 

The following tables, calculated by A. Mor- 
decai, C.E., are intended to serve for the prin- 
cipal gauges used in this country, namely, 3 ft., 
4 ft. 8^ in., 5 ft., and 6 ft. The proper eleva- 
tion is calculated for nine different speeds, from 
15 to 60 miles an hour, and for curves from 30 
minutes to 35 degrees radius, for each gauge \^ 



G Vo 

* Note.— These taWes are calculated from the formula ^ = -^^17— ^, where «=» 

elevation of outer rail, G = gauge of track, V= velocity of train in miles per hour, 
R = radius. The elevation of %'&n inch to a degree for roads of 4 ft. 8K in- gauge, 
and li of an inch for those cf6-ft. gauge, has proved to be a reasonable and safe ele- 
vation for the roads in this countiy. This is about an average of 30 miles per hour 
upon the curves ordinarily used. 



ELEVATION OF OUTER RAIL. 



177 



Table for the Elevation of the Outer Rail on Curves. 

GAUGE, 3 PT. 



Degree 

ot 

Curvature. 




RATE OF SPEED 


IX MILES TER HOUR. 




15 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


43 


50 

In. 


60 




In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


30' 


-h 


.1- 

1 


JL 
8 


1 6 


1 

4 


A 


•ft- 


i 


5 


l" 00' 


.1- 
i 


A 


i 


a 

8 


i 


ItV 


iJ 


I 


I^ 


1° 30' 


i- 


i 


1 


Q 


1 
4 


I 


li 


lA 


2\ 


'X' od 


-h 




i 


a 

4 


I 


Ii% 


IH 


2fV 


3 


2° 30' 


\ 


3 




1.5. 
Ill 


ii% 


Ift 


2j- 


2j 


3i 


3" 00' 




i 


4 


1.^ 


li 


2 


2i 


sir 


4i 


3' 30' 


5. 


-,5^ 


iJ 


ih 


1} 


2-ft 


2[| 


3J 


5i- 


4" 00' 


8 


ii 


I 


li 


2-h 


21% 


2| 


4ft 


6 


4' 30' 


7 
1 


i 


i-h 


iH 


2A- 


3 


aa 


4tt 


6J 


5° 00' 


i 


i! 


ife 


iJ 


2A' 


3^ 


4i 


5i 


7^ 


6' 00' 


-h 


I 


i.% 


2i 


3,V 


4 


5A- 


6i 


9 


7"^ 00' 




i/.- 


III 


2f 


3A 


4U 


5fi 


7ft 


loft- 


8' 00' 


3. 

4 


lA 


2h 


3 


4-A' 


5-ni 


6i 


81 


I2-ft- 


9° 00' 


4^ 

1 b 


li 


2k 


33 


4-,% 


6 


71 


9l 


I3A' 


10° 00' 


' 1 


i\h 


2i 


3!- 


5.^ 


6ii 


s-ft 


10/, 


I5i 


12° 00' 


li 


2 


3i 


4i 












15' 00' 


I| 


2i 


3} 


5-1 












iS" 00' 


^n 


3 


4ih 


6i 












20° 00' 


^i 


F, 


5i 


7'i 












25° 00' 


2-h 


4A 


6'rl 


9} 












30° 00' 


2j 


4ft 


71 


lift 












35° 00' 


3i 


5f 

1 


9 


13 













178 



THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 



Table for the Elevation of the Outer Rail on Curves. 
GAUGE, 4 PT. Wi IN, 



De 


gree 
a-turc. 




RATE OF SPEED IN MILES PER HOUR. 




Curv 


15 


23 


25 


30 


33 


40 


45 


50 


60 






In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 




30' 


-h 


-h 


A 


i 


1 


i 


ii 


it 


li- 


1° 


00' 


i 


JL 
4 


A 


8 


ii 
It) 


Ift 


1-1% 


If 


2| 


I^ 


30' 


iV 


1 


8 


8 


Ii% 


Ift 


2 


22^ 


3i 


^0 


00' 


A 


i. 

2 


it 


4 


Ij 


2^ 


2iJ 


3t 


4f 


2" 


30' 


.a 

8 


ii 


I 


li 


2 


2l-i 


3 td 


4ft 


5lf 


3° 


co' 


.1. 
1 


iJ 


li 


i| 


2ft 


3i 


4 


4l& 


7 




30' 


i 


lb 


ift- 


2lV 


2f| 


3H 


4J 


5l- 


8ft 


4' 


00' 


-h 


li-V 


If 


2j 


3i 


4ft 


5 'te 


6ft 


9ft^ 


4° 


30' 


H 


lA 


i5 


2i 


J8 


4\h 


6 


7l 


loft 


5° 


00' 


f 


lA 


2A 


3 


4 


si 


6J 


8ft 


III 


6° 


00' 


1 
a 


ih 


2f, 


3i 


4ii 


6ft 


8 


9I 


i4tk 


7° 


00' 


I 


ij 


2i 


4i 


5J 


7l 


9l- 


iii 


16J- 


8° 


00' 


I->^- 


2i- 


3A' 


4H 


6ft 


81 


lol 


13^ 


18J 


9° 


00' 


I-fe 


2| 


3ii 


sA 


7i 


9ft 


lilt 


14I 


2lft 


lo" 


00' 


li 


2| 


4i 


5l 


8 


loi 


i3i ■ 


i6| 


23i 


12" 


00' 


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3^ 


4ll 


Th 












15° 


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2i 


3Vf 


6i 


9-h 












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2l* 


4H- 


7l 


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20° 


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2IS 


5i 


8ft 


III 












25° 


00' 


3l-f 


6}| 


io| 


ISA 












30° 


00' 


4?- 


7l* 


12A 


17^ 












35° 


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5fo' 


91^^ 


I4i 


20l% 













ELEVATION OF OUTER RAIL. 



179 



Table for the Elevation of the Outer Rail on Curves. 

GAUGE, 6 FT. 



Degree 
of 




RATE OF SPEED IN MILES PER HOUR. 




Curvature. 


15 


20 , 


23 


30 


35 


40 


43 


50 


Co 




In. 


In 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


30' 


-h 


i 


A 


-h 


-ft- 


A 


ii 


i 


li- 


1° 00' 


i 


J. 

4 


-h 


8 


i 


II 


l.\ 


li 


2A 


1° 30' 


i 


-h 


% 


I 


li 


l}i 


2h 


2| 


3if 


2" 00' 


-h 


■h 


1 


li 


iH 


2i 


2il 


3i 


5i 


2° 30' 


2l 

8 


\k 


lA- 


ij 


2l 


211 


3i 


4l 


6| 


3° 00' 


i 


I. 

8 


ift 


HI 


2>% 


3l 


4i 


Si 


7l-i 


3° 30' 


-h 


I 


li 


21% 


3 


3il 


5 


6i 


8H 


4° 00' 


% 


li 


If 


2i 


3l 


4i 


5f 


7 


i%V 


4° 30' 


\k 


li 


2 


2-11 


3tl 


5i\ 


61 


7l 


Hi 


5° 00' 


\% 


i| 


2,% 


3l% 


4t 


5l 


7A- 


8i 


I2| 


6° 00' 


\% 


lU 


2f 


3tl 


5i 


61 


8i 


loi 


I5i% 


7° 00' 


li 


2 


3lV 


41% 


6 


7}l 


9l 


I2i 


I7f 


8° 00' 


It 


2l 


3l 


5f6- 


6i| 


9 


iii% 


14 


201% 


9° 00' 


i-,^ 


2^ 


3if 


5l 


7H 


iot% 


12H 


I5U 


22,% 


10° 00' 


i-,V 


2il 


4l 


6i 


8i 


lift- 


I4i 


17ft 


25i 


12° 00' 


II 


2| 


5i 


1\ 












15° 00' 


2| 


4A 


6i 


9} 












18" 00' 


2if 


5 


7l-| 


Hi 












20° 00' 


Z\ 


5-,% 


8H 


I2i 












25" 00' 


Ah 


7i 


11^6- 


161% 












30° 00' 


A\k 


8i 


I2lf 


i8| 












35^ 00' 


s-h 


9l 


15 


2I| 













i8o 



THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT 



Table for the Elevation of the Outer Rail on Curves. 



Degree 
of 




RATE OF 


SVEED IN MILES PER HOUR. 




Curvature. 






















15 


20 


25 


30 
In. 


35 


40 


43 


50 


Co 




In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


30' 


-h 


i 


i 


f 


4 


ii 


I 


I-.^6- 


li- 


1° 00' 


'h 


3 

8 


i 


3. 

4 


I 


If 


I|i 


2,^ 


3 


1° 30' 


A 


i 


a 
4 


ri 


r'l 


2 


2-A- 


3i 


4^ 


2° 00' 


f 


li 


I 


li 


2-1-6 


2H 


3l 


4ft' 


6i^S 


2° 30' 


i 


if 


lA 


I* 


2.% 


3l 


4i 


5t 


1\ 


3° 00' 




TS 


I 


li 


2i 


3i\ 


4 


ST^a- 


6i 


9ft- 


3° 30' 


\k 


lA- 


li 


2j 


3-ft 


4H 


5H 


7ft- 


loi 


4° 00' 


1 


If 


2-h 


3 


4i- 


5l 


6i| 


81 


I2-ft 


4° 30' 


i 


li 


2| 


3l 


4l 


6 


71 


9ft 


13ft' 


5° 00' 


if 


iH 


2| 


3l 


5i 


6H 


8i 


loi 


15-ft 


6^ 00' 


I^ 


2 


3k 


4i 


6-1% 


i-h 


loft 


I2ft- 


i8-ft 


7° 00' 


lA 


2| 


3H 


5t 


7-ft 


9l 


"i- 


I4li 


2lk 


8° 00' 


li 


2H 


4ft 


6 


8k 


loH 


13ft 


i6| 


24i 


9° 00' 


I'ri 


3 


4H 


6| 


91% 


12-1V 


I5i 


ISH 


27i 


10° 00' 


i5' 


3l 


5^ 


7} 


loi 


13I 


i6fi 


20K 


30i 


12° 00' 


2I- 


4 


6i 


9 












15° 00' 


2}| 


5 


7lD 


Hi 












18^ 00' 


3l 


6 


9I 


ni 












20** 00' 


3l 


(>\h 


io| 


t5 












25° 00' 


■4l 


8[i 


I3I 


19-ft 












30° 00' 


5i\' 


9I& 


I5I 


22| 












35° 00' 


Gi 


11^- 


iS 


25 













THE FRENCH RULE, 



i8i 



To show the French rule for elevating the 
outer rail, the following table has been com- 
piled from a more extended one given in a 
work by M. H. Sabin, called '' Manuel Pra- 
tique des Poseurs de Voies de Chemins de Fer '' 
(Railroad Tracklayer's Practical Manual) : 



Radius 
in 


De^ee 

of 

Curvature. 


RATE OF SPEED IN MILES TER HOUR. 


Metres, 
















19 


31 


37 


43 


so 






In, 


la. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


3,500 


30' 


i 


-h 


i 


H 


1 


1,800 


58' 


A 


% 


if 


li 


li^ 


1,200 


1° 28' 


3. 


I 


1} 


il 


2h 


900 


1^55' 


i 


lA- 


1} 


2} 


3ft 


600 


2^ 55' 


i.^ 


A% 


211- 


3ll 


4il 


500 


3° 30' 


il 


2 k 


3l 


4,V 


5il 


450 


3° 55' 


1 


2ft 


3\k 


5A- 


6ft 


400 


4° 20' 


lA 


2'rl 


4,% 


5} 


7ft 


350 


5° 00' 


i.\' 


3h- 


4} 


6i 


^k 


300 


5° 50' 


ij 


3} 


5J 


7ft 


9\i 



1 8 



THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 



TABLE 

For Determiningr tb,e Degree of Curvattire and the Elevation 
of the Outer Rail, by Versed Sine of 43-foot Ckords. 
G-au&e, 4 feet 8 1-2 inches. 



Radius. 


Degree of 
Curve, 


Centre Distance to 
the Rail fr^m 43- 
foot (hord, or 
Elevation in ins. 


Radius. 


Degree of 
Curve. 


Centre Distance to 
the Rail from 43- 
foot Chord, ^ or 
Elevation, in in. 


5730 


I^ 0' 


1 


1 146 


5° 0' 


23^ in. 


3820 


1° 30' 


?-i " 


1042 


5° 30' 


o3/ « 


2865 


2° 0' 


X - 


955 


6° 0' 




2292 


2° 30' 


i« " 


832 


6° 30' 


2}i" 


I9IO 


3^ 0' 


iK" 


819 


7° 0' 


3K" 


1637 


3° 30' 


i%- 


764 


f 30' 


Z% " 


1433 


A' 0' 


2 " 


717 


S° 0' 


4 " 


1273 


4° 30' 


2)4" 









Note. — Select a part of the curve in good alignment, and take two points 43 feet 
apart on the inside of the outer rail. Measure the distance from the middle of a line 
connecting the points to the rail, and this distance will give the required elevation ; it 
will also show the degree of curvature according to the table. It is well to take two or 
more observations. 

One-half of the elevation in the above table is to be used in yards and sidings. 

For a ^feet gauge the proper elevation is % in. per degree of curvature. This will be 
given by the middle ordinate to a chord 0(53 feet, instead of 43 feet, as above. 

For a 2rfeet gauge the proper elevation is % in. per degree of cun'ature. This will be 
given by the middle ordinate to a chord of 37^ feet. 

For a s-feet gauge the elevation should be somewhat greater than for a 4 feet Z]i in. 
gauge, and the chord may be taken 45 feet long. 



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THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 



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APPENDIX I. 

RULES FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF TRACK AND 
BRIDGE REPAIRERS, ADOPTED FOR- THE AT- 
LANTIC & GREAT WESTERN RAILROAD. 

1. Condition of Engagement, — Before any la- 
borer or foreman is employed he must be made 
to understand that the wilful transgression of 
any of these rules will be met with prompt pun- 
ishment. Any insubordination, drunkenness, 
being found off duty during working hours, or 
the commission or omission of any act whereby 
engines or trains shall or might be endangered, 
will be punished by dismissal. 

No Employee to be discharged zvitJiout Cause. — 
No employee, whether foreman or laborer, shall 
be discharged without sufficient cause, and 
never for the purpose of making room for other 
parties. 

2. Must ahvays Jiave Time-Table, — Section-fore- 
men and foremen of bridge repairs must have 
a copy of the time-table for the moving of trains 
always with them when on duty, and must un- 
derstand its use and know the time of all trains 
at the point of their Avork. 

3. Track-Walker. — An experienced man must 

187 



1 88 ' THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

pass over each section every morning — on foot 
— and see that the track is in a safe condition ; 
and he will especially look at each frog, switch, 
and switch-lock, and all culverts and cattle- 
guards, and know that each is in perfect order 
for the moving of trains. He will also examine 
each bridge and see that all the nuts are in 
place, and, if loose or off the rods, will report the 
fact at once by telegraph to the Superintendent 
of Bridges and the nearest bridge foreman. 

4. Track and bridge foremen will be held re- 
sponsible for the men under their charge, and 
must be satisfied of thecompetency of each man 
for the work under his charge. 

5. Trains carrying Signals, etc, — Track and 
bridge repairers w^hile on duty must watch 
every train as it passes, and observe whether 
notices are thrown off, or whether signal- flags 
or lamps are exhibited on the engine, denoting 
that a special train is following. Under the 
present system of running trains by telegraph, 
it is necessary to be prepared at all times for 
special or irregular trains. 

6. Signals to be used, — The signals to be used 
by track and bridge repairers are red and bi- 
colored (combined red and vv^hite) flags, red 
lamps, and torpedoes (to be used in case of fogs 
or storms, when flag and lamp signals are liable 
to be obscure). Red flags b}^ day and red 
lamps by night. The bi-colored flag signifies 



ATLANTIC &> GREAT WESTERN RULES. I 89 

caution and the red danger. Such signals must 
be sent half a mile, or 16 telegraph poles, in each 
direction from the place of danger, and must be 
waved across the track on the approach of trains. 
Foremen of track and bridge repairers will see 
that each gang of workingmen have the signals 
always with them when at work. 

Red Shirts not to be ivorn, — Track-men must 
not wear red shirts as outer garments, as they 
are frequently mistaken for danger signals. 

Danger Signals. — Whenever it is necessary to 
exhibit a danger signal, it should be waved high 
in the air. 

1^^ Torpedoes must also be carried by the 
track and bridge men, and when the track is ob- 
structed during fogs or storms by night or day, 
in addition to all other signals, at least two tor- 
pedoes shall be placed upon the rails 1 6 tele- 
graph poles from the place of danger. 

7. Doing Work that will make the Track nnsafe. 
— Whenever it is necessary to remove or replace 
a rail in the track, or to repair a bridge, culvert, 
or cattle-guard, or in the event of any cause by 
Avhich the track is rendered unsafe, a red signal 
must be placed conspicuously at a distance of 
not less than half a mile, or 16 telegraph poles, 
in each direction, by men sent out expressly 
(even when no train is due), and the signal shall 
be exhibited until the track is known to be 
clear. And in case a curve or the summit of a 



' igO THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

grade shall be near the point of half a mile, 
signals iniist be sent further, so as to be entirely 
' safe. A man must invariably be with the signal, 
and remain with it until he receives orders to 
return. 

8. Work on Sunday, — When it is necessary to 
make any repairs to the track, or any bridge 
that will cause an obstruction of the track, and 
it cannot be done between trains, such work 
must be done (in cases of absolute necessity) on 
Sunday, and the road-master or bridge super- 
intendent will notify the Chief Engineer at least 
three days before the day on which the work is 
to be done, and the track must not be disturbed 
or rendered unsafe until permission has been 
given. 

9. No Work to be done during Fog or Snow 0I 
Rain Storms, — In no case, except where there \i 
absolute necessity, is any work to be performed 
during a fog or snoiv-storm by which an obstruc- 
tion may be caused to the passage of trains. 

10. Failure of Train Men to regard. Signals, — 
Section foremen and foremen of bridge-repairers 
will report the failure of train-men to respect a 
signal at once to their immediate superior, giv- 
ing the number of the train and the number of 
the engine. 

11. Section-Foremen to be on Duty during 
Storms, — During heavy storms of rain, snow, or 
hail, whether by day or night, whereby the 



ATLANTIC ^ GREAT WESTERN RULES. I9I 

works may be liable to sudden injury, section 
foremen must be on duty ; and immediately 
after the abatement of the storm, or, if necessary, 
during its continuance, they must go over their 
sections with danger signals and an axe for the 
purpose of ascertaining if the track is safe for 
the passage of trains and to remove all obstruc- 
tions. The points on the sections most liable to 
injury are to be first visited. In case of heavy 
winds, they must be sure that no trees or 
telegraph poles have been blown across the 
track. 

12. Reporting Accidents, — Section foremen 
must report all accidents occurring on their sec- 
tions, by telegram, to the road-master and Chief 
Engineer as soon as possible, giving the nature 
of the accident. On the same day they must 
send a written report of the accident to the 
road-master. 

13. Keeping Highway Crossings in Repair, — ■ 
Section foremen vv^ill see that highway and farm 
crossings are kept in the best possible repair 
and not obstructed by any material, and will in 
no case have hand or repair cars on highway 
crossings unnecessarily interfere with the pro- 
per use of any crossing. 

14. Examining tJie Foundation of Bridges^ etc, — 
Section foremen and foremen of bridge repairs 
must examine particularly the foundation of all 
bridges, culverts, and cattle-guards, and prevent 



19^ THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT,. 

all washing or undermining, and see that the 
openings are kept clear of driftwood and old 
ties. They shall also remove all combustible 
material from the vicinity of the bridge, and see 
that all necessary appliances for preventing fire 
are prepared. 

15. No Timber, Wood, Cross-Ties^ etc., to be piled 
within six feet of the Track, — Whenever wood, 
cross-ties, lumber, or other material is piled 
along the track, notice must be taken by track- 
men that it is at least six feet from the rail ; and 
should any such material be found nearer, they 
shall at once remove it to the proper distance ; 
nor shall signal post or board be placed nearer 
the rail than six feet. 

\6, Hand-Cars not in actual use to be removed 
from the Track, — When hand or repair cars are 
not in actual use they must be lifted off the 
track and placed entirely clear of passing trains, 
and, when not under the immediate eye of the 
men, must be locked ; and no hand or repair car 
will be used on the track without orders from 
the section foreman. 

17. Must not -carry Rails on Hand-Cars. — Iron 
rails must not be carried on hand-cars, except in 
cases ot emergency. 

18. Hand-Cars not to be tiscd on Sunday — No 
hand-cars must be used on Sundays or nights, 
except in cases of necessity, and then only by 
the authority of the section foreman ; and unde;* 



ATLANTIC ^ GREAT WESTERN RULES, I93 

no circumstances must they be used except on 
company business. 

19. Use of Hand-Cars^ etc, , at Niglit and during 
Fogs and Snoiv-Storms, — Great care must be ex- 
ercised when it is necessary to use hand or re- 
pair cars in case of fogs or snow-storms or in 
the night, and the section foreman must be 
with it. In no case must a hand or repair car 
be attached to a train when in motion. 

20. Ascertaining wltat Trains have passed before 
going to Work in the Alorning, — Section foremen 
will ascertain, if possible, before going out to 
their work in the morning from the station 
agents or telegraph operators whether all regu- 
lar trains have passed, or whether any special 
trains are on the road, but in no case shall the 
men be delayed by waiting for information. 

21. Section Foremen responsible for the safe 
condition of the Fences, — Section foremen will be 
held responsible for the safe condition of the 
fences joining the railroad grounds, and, in case 
of a temporary break, will at once repair it. 
They will also use due diligence to keep all 
farm .or other gates closed, and Vvdll instruct 
their men to see this alwa3^s attended to. 
Road-masters \vill see that each section is sup- 
plied with material, such as nails, boards, and 
rails, to make all temporary repairs. 

22. Section Foremen responsible for the Tools 
and Material in their charge. Disposition of 



194 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

Scrap, etc. — Section foremen will be held re- 
sponsible for all tools and materials left in their 
charge, and must report the loss or destruction 
of the same to the road-master ; and under no 
circumstances will they be permitted to lend 
the tools or materials of the company to any 
person. All unused spikes, chairs, fish-plates, 
bolts, or other light material must be taken 
each day to the car-houses ; and all scrap rails 
must be piled upon rough platforms, placed as 
much as possible in straight lines, and near sid- 
ings, and assorted. And they must pick up 
each day any material lost from cars or engines 
—such as car-doors, brakes, bolts, nuts, and 
small scrap, or other property belonging to the 
company — and take it to the car-houses, where 
it will be assorted and shipped to the scrap 
depots on the first and third Mondays of each 
month. And an}^ packages or articles of freight 
that may fall from any train must be taken to 
the station agents, who will report the same to 
the General Freight Agent. 

23. Damage to Persons, — In case of accident to 
any person or persons caused by the operations 
of this road, an immediate report must be made 
by telegraph to the Chief Engineer and road- 
master, so that all persons w^hose duty it is to 
take action in such matter can be notified ; and 
in case of an accident causing death, the coroner 
must also be summoned by the nearest employee, 



/^'ij^^ANTIC &= GREAT WESTERN RULES, 1 95 

should it not be possible for the road-master, 
foreman, or other person in charge to do so. 

24. Damage to Live Stock, — Whenever cattle, 
horses, sheep, or hogs are killed by a train, a 
cattle report must be made out and forwarded 
to the road-master at once. 

25. Repairing the Telegraph Wire, — Track-men 
will notice any temporary injury to the tele- 
graph Ime, poles or wire, and will report the 
same at once to the nearest station agent, to be 
forwarded to the proper officer, and, when the 
injury can be substantially or temporarily re- 
paired by themselves, will do so without delay. 

26. Shajtties, — Section-foremen will see that 
track-men who have shanties or houses on the 
companj^'s right of way keep the same in 
reasonable repair and the grounds clear of 
rubbish. No one will be allowed to build a 
new shanty, remove an old one, or build any 
addition without the consent of the Chief En- 
gineer. 

27. Old Ties renezved. — No cross-tie should be 
removed until it has had its full life. All old 
ties which may be removed must be gathered 
at the close of each day and put in some con- 
venient place for burning. 

28. Employing additional Men, — No additional 
labor must be employed by a section-forem.an 
without tlie consent of the road-master. 

29. Section Foremen must be with their Men, — 



196 THH ROAD-MASTHR^S ASSISTANT. 

Section foremen are expected to be with their 
men and to assist in all work in which they may 
be engaged. They will keep an accurate ac- 
count of the time of their men, and the distribu- 
tion of the labor, in their time-books, returning 
time only for the amount of work performed. 
In case of injury of any of their men they will 
continue his name on the pay-roll, noting in 
writing the number of idle days consequent 
upon the injury. 

30. Guaranteeing Board-Bills. — No one except 
the Chief Engineer will be authorized to guar- 
antee board-bills for laborers. 

3 1 . Foremen must be respectful to Farmers^ etc, 
— Section foremen must, in all cases, be civil 
and respectful to the farmers and patrons of the 
road along the line, and must instruct their men 
to be obliging and accommodating in all cases. 
They must treat the men under their charge 
with the consideration due to men, and in no 
case use profane and abusive language towards 
them. 

32. Making Presents not per mitt ecL — As the 
practice of making presents to foremen and 
officers of the company is neither reputable nor 
conducive to good discipline, all employees of 
the engineering department are earnestly re- 
quested and are required to refrain from offer- 
ing presents or testimonials to their superiors, 
.directly or indirectly. 



ATLANTIC 6r> GREAT WESTERN RULES, 1 9/ 

33. Receiving Bribes or Gifts. — It will be con- 
sidered criminal for any employee to take a 
commission or bribe, or receive a consideration, 
for any position or favor granted to any sub- 
ordinate. 

34. Cleanliness, — The observance of the fore- 
going rules is strictly enjoined upon the em- 
ployees of the engineering department, and it is 
hoped that in carrying out the most essential 
part of their duty, the maintenance of a good 
track, they will not fail to take proper care of 
the property of the company, and keep the 
right of way and depot grounds clean and neat. 
An untidy section will be considered as evi- 
dence of an incompetent foreman. 

35. Replacing Iron Rails, — All rails and parts 
of rails that are fit for use, purchased and laid 
since shall be kept together, not 
moved from section to section, nor sent in as 
scrap until specially ordered, so that the full 
life of each make can be ascertained. 

36. A II joints to be fully Bolted, — Road-masters 
and section foremen will see that all joints are 
fully bolted. Where this is not the case, owing 
to improper punching, the compromise fish- 
plate must be substituted for the old ones, and, 
in case these should not fit, new holes must be 
drilled. 

37. Split Szuitches must be used on Main Line,--- 
Split switches or points are, in all cases, to be 



198 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

used on the main line. Wherever other kinds 
are in use their places should be supplied with 
split switches as soon as practicable. 

38. Cutting Grass and Weeds. — Weeds and 
grass growing on the right of Avay must be cut 
before seed-time, and collected and burned as 
promptly as possible. 

39. Cidtivating the Right of Way. — Road- 
masters will permit section foremen and labor- 
ers to cultivate the land lying between the 
boundaries of the right of way. 

40. No one allowed to occupy a Slianty without 
paying Rent. — No one must be allowed to oc- 
cupy a company shanty without permission of 
the road-master nor without paying rent, and 
the road-master must notify the Chief Engineer 
of all changes. 

41. Reporting Burnt Fences. — An immediate 
report by telegraph must be made to the Chief 
Engineer of all fences burned, stating mile-post, 
number of rods burned, and the cause. 

42. Road-Masters must inspect their Track. — 
The divisions on the road have been sub-divided 
into lengths of about 50 miles each, to enable 
road-masters to zvalk over them, and it is ex- 
pected they w^ill not fail to fulfil this important 
duty. 

43. Smoking on Duty. — Smoking while on 
duty must not be allowed. 

44. When a foremian is about quitting the ser- 



ATLANTIC ^ GREAT WESTERN RULES, IQQ 

vice of the railroad, the road-master must see 
that all tools and other property belonging to 
the company committed to his charge are pro- 
perly accounted for, and also examine his time- 
book to see that all accounts are straight, and 
to get full explanations where needed. 

45. Whenever any building or structure of 
any kind is being placed upon the property of 
the company by other than the company *s men, 
the fact should be at once reported to the Chief 
Engineer, unless it is positively known that pro- 
per authority has been obtained. 

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO BE FOLLOWED IN 
THE MAINTENANCE OF TRACK. 

Ditching, — Where the cuts will admit, all 
ditches must be made to conform to the follow- 
ing diagram : 



'^m^^m^m^^^^m 





Fig. I. 
The dotted portion of above diagram indicates the ballast. 



All old ditches should be cleaned and all new 
ones dug by October i of each year. 

Ballasting, — At places w^here the ballast is 
very thin or where there is none at all, the fill- 
ing between the ties should be sloped from the 
centre to the bottom of the ends of the ties. 



200 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

Where there is an abundance of ballast, shoul- 
der out, from two inches of the top of the tie 
to two inches above the bottom of the tie, as 
far as the material will go, without obstructing 
the ditches. See Fig. i. In all cases the bal- 
last should be two inches above the top of the 
tie at the centre. 

Raising Track, — The object should always be 
to get a good solid bearing for the cross-ties on 
a gravel bed, and, when once obtained, the ties 
should not be raised until a new bed of gravel 
is required. 

Quality of Cross- Ties, — The best quality of ties 
must be used for the main track — white oak 
to rank first, cherry and chestnut respectively 
second and third. Where there is an abun- 
dance, white oak only must be used on main 
line. No hemlock ties will be allowed in the 
main track. 

Distribution of Cross- Ties, — Cross-ties must 
be distributed over the different sections during 
the winter months, in time to be put in the 
track in the spring. 

Lining Ties, — The ends of the ties must be 
lined on the south side of the track, because : 

1st. That s)^mmetry may be preserved. 

2d. That, the surface being uniform, the road- 
bed will thaw equally in the spring. 

Wooden Spikes, — Every foreman must keep a 
supply of wooden spikes in his hand-car house, 



ATLANTIC &^ GREAT WESTERN RULES, 201 

and with his gang while on work, and the in- 
variable rule must be to plug ever}^ hole wher- 
ever a spike is drawn. Arrangements have 
been made by which each section can be sup- 
plied, and road- masters will see that none is 
without them. 

Elevating Curves, — Get the full elevation of 
the outside rail at point of curve. For this pur- 
pose, and to insure smoothness where trains 
strike the curves, the elevation should com- 
micnce back on the tangents and continue gra- 
dually as follows : 

For a i"^ curve, 50 feet back on the tangent, 

For a 2° " 100 

For a 3^ '' 150 
and so on, increasing 50 feet for each degree of 
curvature. 

To determine the elevation of the outer rail 
on curves, stretch a line between two points 54 
feet apart, on the running side of the outer rail, 
and the distance from the centre of this line to 
the rail will give the elevation required. For 
4 ft. 95^ in. gauge use a line 45 feet long. 

Foul SwitcJies, — In order to prevent foul 
joints at switches, the switch-rods should be 
confined between two ties laid three inches 
apart. This precaution is not rendered neces- 
sary in split switches, as the rods are secured to 
the rail by small bolts. 



202 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR TRACK-LAYING. 

/. — Receiving Iron, — All rails, as they are re- 
ceived by the road-masters, must be carefully 
counted and measured, and an accurate state- 
ment made to the Chief Engineer daily of the 
receipts, stating the following : 

1. Number of car load. 

2. Initial of car and number. 

3. Number of rails. 

4. Length of rails. 

5. Weight of rails per yard. 

6. Height of rails. 

7. Marks on rails. 

8. Place of shipment. 

9. Date of way-bill and number. 

10. Place of receipt. 

11. Condition of the rails. 

//. — Unloading. — No rails must be unloaded 
while the cars are in motion. The distribution 
of bars must be made over the section by the 
section iron-cars. 

///. — Surfacing Old Track preparatory to Lay- 
ing new Iron, — Before laying the iron the track 
must be surfaced, so that the new iron will not 
be battered and bent. Old rotten ties must be 
removed and others put in, and all ties must be 
laid or brought at right angles to the track. 
No tie must be laid obliquely to suit two joints 
not exactly opposite each other. 



ATLANTIC &- GREAT WESTERN RULES, 203 

IV. — Adzing Ties, — The ties must be adzed, 
if necessary, in order to obtain a true and uni- 
form bearing for the base of the rail, and in 
order that the tread of the wheel may have a fair 
bearing. 

V. — Spacing Ties, — In all new work the ties 
must be uniformly spaced, and on surfacing old 
work any improper spacing must be corrected. 
The best ties must be placed at .the joints, and 
the ties next to the joints must be, as near as 
may be, of uniform size. 

VL — Ganges, — Road- masters will see that their 
gauges are exactly correct by standard in en- 
gineer's office before laying track. 

VIL — Crooked Rails, — All crooked rails must 
be straightened before they are laid in the 
track. 

VIIL — C2irves,—N}\ rails for curves must be 
curved before being placed in the track, accord- 
ing to table No. 6. 

IX, — Shims, — Iron shims must always be used 
in laying track. Supervisors must keep them- 
selves provided with them. Wooden chips will 
not do. Shims are to be used with greatest 
expansion of Y^ in., mediums of ^ in. or yi in., 
and least of ^ of an inch. In the coldest weather 
use the ^ in., at freezing point ^ in., at 70^ % 
in., and in very hot weather use ^ in. This 
may be modified by grades, irregularity of sur- 
face, or bad line when first laid. 



204 THE ROAD-MASIEIVS ASSISTANT, 

X. — Laying the Rails, — The rails must be laid 
even joints — that is, with the joints opposite ; but 
if, in laying around curves, they do not come 
exactly opposite, the iron must not be cut, but 
shorter or longer rails must be used until the 
joints are brought opposite. Space for expan- 
sion of rails must not be used to lengthen out 
the outer rail. In case bevelled rails are fur- 
nished, lay them with the bevel towards the 
centre of track. 

XI. — Lining Track. — When the iron is laid it 
must be perfectly lined. No imperfections in 
the alignment will be permitted. 

XIL — Level and Elevation on Curves. — The 
track must be brought to a perfect level on 
straight lines with a track-level ; and on curves, 
for each degree elevate the outer rail one-half 
an inch on track of standard gauge (4 ft. Zy^ in.) ; 
for six-foot gauge use three-quarters of an inch. 
Table No. 7. 

XIIL — Gauge. — The track must be laid to a 
perfect gauge. 

XIV. — Step' Chairs. — All rails laid adjoining 
others of different heights must have a step- 
chair to bring the tops of the rails to an equal 
height. 

XV. — Different Punching, — All rails joined to 
others of different punching must have fish- 
plates made to fit the different patterns of 
irons. 



ATLANTIC &- GREAT WESTERN RULES. 20$ 

XV L — Spiking, — All rails must be spiked full 
— two spikes to each tie ; and every spike must 
be driven perpendicularly and close home, with 
a full hold upon the rail. 

XVIL — Spiking in Slots, — The slot-spikes 
must be driven into their proper places. In 
cold weather place them against the side of the 
slot nearest the end of the rail ; in hot w^eather, 
the contrary. 

XVI I L — Markiitg Beginning and Ending Poijifs 
of Neiv Rails, — Place a painted stake (red), 
marked with a white letter indicating the kind 
of rail laid, at the beginning and terminal points 
of each lot, with the date of laying, so that 
the exact wear of the iron may be ascer- 
tained. 

XIX, — Investigation. — Road-masters will make 
careful investigation into the wear of the rails, 
fish-plates, spikes, bolts, washers, and ties, and 
encourage their foremen to investigate and ex- 
amine and make reports and suggestions fre- 
quently. 

XX. — Frogs and Szvitches. — In putting in frogs 
and switches the exact distance from head-block 
to point of frog must be observed, according to 
tables Nos. i and 2. Cut always to get proper 
distance. 

XXI, — Same Pattern of Rails to be Kept To- 
gether, — In laying the newMron you will use the 
old rails that are good to repair track with the 



206 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

same pattern of rails, so that each kind may be 
kept together. 

XXI L — Road-masters will use the appliance 
furnished them in determining the degree of 
curvature and the amount of elevation of the 
outside rail 



APPENDIX IL 

RULES AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE GOVERN- 
MENT OF TRACK-MEN ON THE LOUISVILLE & 
NASHVILLE AND SOUTH & NORTH ALABAMA 
RAILROADS. 

FOR SECTION FOREMEN. 
DITCHING. 

1. Shape and Drainage, — In determining the 
shape and depth of all ditches at the highest 
point, where the grade of the ditch begins, sec- 
tion foremen must be guided by the standard 
diagram. The ditches must be graded so as to 
pass all water freely during the heaviest rains, 
and to thoroughly drain the road-bed. 

2. Direction, — The direction of ditches must 
in general be parallel with the rails, and the 
outlines of them must be well and clearly de- 
fined. 

3. Cross-Drains, — Cross-drains must be put in 
wherever they are necessary. 

4. Disposition of Earth, — All earth taken 
from ditches or elsewhere must be dumped 
over the banks and levelled off so as to allow 
complete drainage of water from under the 
cross ties. 

207 



208 THE ROAD-MASTERS ASSISTANT, 

5. Frequent Examination, — Ditches, box- 
drains, and culverts must be often inspected 
and cleared of all obstructions. Masonry which 
has been washed or undermined must receive 
prompt attention, and serious cases reported to 
the supervisor or road-master. 

6. Neighboring Streams. — Channels and 
streams for a considerable distance to the right 
and left of the road must also be frequently ex- 
amined and cleared of brush, drift, and other 
movable obstructions. 

7. Cleaned for Winter, — It is expected that all 
new ditches will be dug- and all old ones cleaned 
for the winter season by the first day of Novem- 
ber of each year. 

BALLAST. 

8. Earth-filling, — At places where the ballast 
is very thin, or where there is none at all, the 
fining between the ties must be sloped from the 
centre of the track to the bottom ends of the 
cross-ties. 

Thickness of Stratum of Gravel, — The height 
of gravel ballast in the centre of the track 
should be two (2) inches above the top of the 
tie. When gravel is abundant it may be left two 
(2) inches below the base of rail at the ends of 
the cross-ties, and then extended out on a 
slope without obstructing the side-ditches. 

9. Preparation of Sub-Grade, — Before distribut- 



LOUISVILLE &^ NASHVILLE RULES. 2O9 

ing any kind of ballast, whether rock or gravel, 
the sub-grade must be properly prepared and 
banks widened, so that none of the ballast is 
wasted or washed away. 

10. Size of Rock Ballast. — Rock ballast must be 
broken evenly in pieces which can be passed 
through a ring two (2) inches in diameter. 

11. Tliickness of Rock Ballast, — There should 
be a uniform depth of twelve (12) inches of clear 
fine broken stone under the ties. The ballast must 
be filled up evenly between but never above the 
ties. Six (6) inches from the ends of the cross- 
ties the ballast must be sloped evenly at the 
rate of i to i to sub-grade. 

12. Filling betzveen Main Track and Sidings. — 
Between main track and sidings large, coarse 
stones may be placed at the bottom, but not at 
the ends of the cross-ties. 

13. Gravel and Rock Ballast used togetJier. — 
Wherever gravel is within payable hauling 
distance it must be used to the depth of four 
(4) inches under the cross-ties, upon a stratum 
of fine broken rock ballast eight (8) inches 
deep. The filling between the ties, sloping from 
the centre toward the ends, as above specified, 
should be of clear or screened gravel. 

14. Purpose of Ballast. — The object of ballast 
is to transfer the applied load over a large sur- 
face, to hold the cross-ties firmly in a horizontal 
position, to prevent freezing in winter, to carry 



2IO THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

off water during rains, and to give elasticity to 
the road-bed. The material in all cases should 
be clear and hard, so as not to pack in a solid 
mass and thus prevent the passage of water 
away from the track. The aim should be to 
get a good solid bearing for the cross-ties on a 
bed of gravel or finely-broken rock uniform 
throu^^hout ; and when once obtained the cross- 
ties must not be raised until a new bed of 
gravel or stone is required. 

CROSS-TIES. 

15. Specifications. — The best quality of cross* 
ties must be used for the main track ; all to be 
of post or white' oak, perfectly sound and 
straight. With rock or gravel ballast the size 
is to be 6 in. X 8 in. by 8}^ feet long. On those 
parts of the line where ballast is not to be ob- 
tained the size of the cross-ties should be 7 in. 
X 9 in. by 9 feet long. In all cases they must 
be hewed to the exact thickness, with parallel 
faces throughout, and both bark and sap-wood 
entirely removed. 

Sawed cross-ties muct only be used Vv^here it 
is impossible to get the required number of 
hewed ones. 

16. Spacing and Clioice of Ties, — In all new 
work the cross-ties must be uniformly spaced, 
and while surfacing old work any previous im- 
proper spacing must be corrected. The largest 



LOUISVILLE &- NASHVILLE RULES, 2 I I 

and best ties, if there is any variation in width, 
are to be placed at joints, and the ties next to 
the joints should be as nearly as possible of the 
same size. 

1 7. Ties ivith Suspended and Siippoi'ted Joints. 
' — Where suspended joint with flange splice is 
used the proper spacing of ties is sixteen (i6) 
inches in the clear between the edges of timber 
for intermediate ties, and ten (lo) inches in the 
clear between the two joint-ties. Where sup- 
ported joint is used the distance in the clear 
from the joint-tie to either of the shoulder-ties 
is ten inches ; the rest of the ties are to be 
spaced sixteen inches apart, as in suspended 
joints. 

18. Cross-ties should never be notched, but, 
if necessary, must be adzed, in order to obtain a 
true and uniform bearing for the base of the rail. 

19. Ends even on East Side. — The ends of all 
cross-ties must be lined true on the east side of 
the track, in order that symmetry may be pre- 
served, and that, the bearing surface being uni- 
form on that side, the road-bed will thazv equally 
in spring. 

20. Ties Protecting Switch-Rods. — In order to 
prevent foul joints at switches, and to protect 
switch-rods in cases of derailment, all rods for 
stub-switches must, in every case, be confined 
between two cross-ties laid three (3) inches 
apart. 



212 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

21. Wooden Plugs, — Every foreman will keep 
a supply of wooden spikes in his hand- car 
house and with his gang. While at work the 
invariable rule must be to plug every hole wher- 
ever a spike is drawn. 

Each section foreman will be supplied with 
wooden spikes made by machinery, and super- 
visors will see that none is without them. In 
case the stock is exhausted and new ones do 
not arrive, foremen will have them made by 
hand when no other work can be done. 

RAILS, 

22. Unloading and Distribution, — Steel or iron 
rails must never be unloaded while cars are in 
motion. The distribution of bars over the 
section must be made by push-cars. 

23. Preparation of Road-Bed. — Before laying 
any new iron or steel the track must be sur- 
faced so that the new iron will not be battered 
and bent. All old decayed ties must be re- 
moved and new ones substituted. All ties must 
be laid at right angles to the track, and no tie 
should be put in obliquely to suit a joint which 
does not come out exactly. 

24. Bent Rails. — All crooked and bent rails 
must be carefully straightened before they are 
laid in the track. 

25. Broken Joints. — The joints of the rails in 
suspended joints must be exactly midway be- 



LOUISVILLE &- NASHVILLE RULES. 2\^ 

tween the two joint-ties; and the joint on the 
line of one rail must be opposite the middle of 
the rail on the other line of the same track. In 
other v/ords, the track is to be laid with broken 
joints/" 

In supported joints the joint must be exactly 
over the centre of the cross-tie underneath. 

26. Curving Rails, — All rails for curves must 
be bent before they are laid in the track. See 
Table VII. 

2J, Space between the Ends of Rails, — Iron 
shims to separate the rails at the joints must 
always be used in laying track. Wooden chips 
will not answer and must not be used. The 
proper thickness for coldest weather is five- 
sixteenths of an inch ; during spring and fall 
use one-eighth of an inch ; and in the very 
hottest weather one-sixteenth of an inch should 
be allowed — the rails supposed to be of uniform 
length. 

This rule must be carefully observed, as many 
serious accidents have occurred by neglecting 
this simple method of making proper allowance 
for expansion. Any rail or fastening is w^eak 
compared with the powerful expansive force of 
the sun's rays. 

28. Complete Splice, — The splices must be pro- 
perly put on with the /////number, of bolts, nuts, 

* I differ. The joints should be opposite or even joints. — C. L. 



214 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

and washers. Nuts must always be kept 
screwed up tight. 

29. Hozv many Spikes, and zvhere to Place Them, 
— All rails must be spiked full on main track — 
four spikes to each tie — and every spike must be 
driven home close, with a full hold upon the 
rail. On sidings between the clearing points 
only half-spiking is permitted. Spikes must 
always be driven where there are slots in the 
iron. In cold weather place them against the 
side of the slot nearer the end of the rail ; in 
hot weather on the other side of the slot. 

30. Spiking at tlie Joints, — In suspended joints 
with flange splice the inside splice-bar is slotted, 
and spikes must be driven in their proper places 
as above. But the outside splice-bar is not 
slotted, and spikes must be driven close to the 
rail and at each end of the splice-bar, taking a 
firm hold of the base of the rail. The splice is 
thus closely confined between the spikes driven 
into the joint-ties. 

31. Accnrate Track-Gauges. — Track-gauges in 
the possession of foremen will from time to 
time be compared by road-masters and su- 
pervisors with the standard in the engineer's 
office. 

32. Widening of Gauge on Cnrves, — The track 
must be laid to a perfect gauge on straight lines, 
and also on curves on which the line fifty-three 
feet long, stretched as per paragraph 33, shows 



LOUISVILLE &- NASHVILLE RULES. 21$ 

less than four inches. If this distance is more 
than four inches, the gauge of the track must be 
widened one-fourth of an inch ; if the distance is 
more than six inches, it must be widened one- 
half an inch. This increase of gauge is to be ac- 
companied by an elevation of the outer rail, as 
per paragraph below. ^ 

33. How to Dcterinine the Elevation — To deter- 
mine practically the elevation of the outer rail 
on curves laid to five-feet gauge, stretch a Ime 
between two points fifty-three feet apart on the 

•running or inside of the outer rail; then the 
distance from the centre of this line to the rail 
will be the elevation required. Care should be 
taken to use a fine line, and have it well stretched 
on a curve in good alignment, and to measure 
the distance at the centre of the line, which is 
26^^ feet from either end. 

34. Begin the Elevation on Straight Track, — 
The elevation at the beginning of a curve should 
be as great as at any other part of it. To ensure 
smooth running, especiall}^ for trains at fast 
speed, the elevation must commence back on 
the straight line, and continue gradually until 
the curve is reached. The following table shows 
how far from the beginning of the curve the 
elevation should commence : 



* This is like tli3 Prussian system. I do not follow this practice in curves 
less than 9", as I think the wheel-gauge gives allowance enough— viz., % inch. 
-C. L. 



2l6 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

For a 1° curve, 50 feet back on a straight line. 



3° 


<£ 


150 


4° 


u 


200 


5° 


a 


250 


6° 


a 


300 



increasing thus fifty feet for each degree of cur- 
vature. 

35. Alignment, — When new iron is laid it must 
be perfectly lined. No imperfection in the align- 
ment will be permitted. 

36. Top of Rails Level, — On all straight lines 
the top of the rails must be made to conform 
strictly to the track level. 

37. Distance of Head-Block from Point of Frog. 
— In putting down frogs and sw^itches the exact 
distance from head-block to point of frog must 
be observed, according to Table I. 

38. Guard-rail Brackets, — Every guard-rail at 
switches must have three cast-iron brackets, to 
prevent it from turning over. 

39. Cleaning Frogs and Stvitches, and Inspec- 
tion of Same, — Switches and frogs must be kept 
well in line, and free from ice and snow. Dur- 
ing severe winter weather they must be in- 
spected every day. They must work easily, 
and have no lost motion. 

40. Step-Chairs, — All rails adjoining others of 
a different height must have a step-chair to bring 
the top of the rails on the same level. 



LOUISVILLE e^ NASHVILLE RULES, 21/ 

41. Different Pitncliing at Ends of Rails, — All 
rails joined to others of different punching must 
have fish-plates made to fit the different pat 
terns of iron. 

42. Closures^ and Bolt-Holes in iJiein, — Steel rails 
will be neither cut nor slotted under any cir- 
cumstances. All closures must be made of iron 
rails of the same pattern, if pieces of steel rail 
are not at hand. Foremen must use the drills 
which are furnished to make holes for bolts 
whenever iron is cut or closures made. No 
joint must permanently remain without the full 
number of four bolts to each joint. 

43. Disposition of Rails taken front Track. — In 
laying new iron or steel rails the old rails that 
are good enough to repair the track must be 
used again where the same pattern of rail has 
been laid, so that each kind of iron may be kept 
by itself, 

WATCHING. 

44. Foremen to be ahvays Alert, — Foremen are 
required to pass over the whole extent of their 
sections at least every alternate day, to observe 
particularly the condition of the main track, sid- 
ings, culverts, cattle-guards, bridges, and fences. 
They must always have with them a time-table 
for the movement of trains, and must understand 
its use, and know the time of all trains at what- 
ever point they may stop to work. 



2l8 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

45. Obstructing Track ih order to make Repairs. 
— Foremen of repair-gangs, as well as of bridge- 
men and construction trains, must never obstruct 
the track in any way whatever without protect- 
ing themselves properly, as per special rules 
issued. 

Special trains or engines ma}^ pass over the 
road at any time without previous notice, and 
foremen must be prepared for them. Anything 
that interferes with the safe passage of trains is 
an obstruction, and must not be attempted with- 
out using the proper precaution. ** Employees 
are permitted to use the track for making re- 
pairs to within twenty minutes of the time of 
passenger trains, and ten minutes of the time 
of freight trains; but always under cover of a 
danger signal. Such signals must be placed at 
least fifteen telegraph poles in both directions, 
firmly and conspicuously planted in the ground 
on the side of the engineer. If an obstruction 
of the track occurs on sharp curves and heavy 
grades, so that the danger signal cannot be seen 
by the foreman at the point where he is working, 
a man must be left in charge of it. In all cases 
the staff with horizontal arm must be used, so as 
to display fully the whole red flag, even in the 
calmest weather.'' 

46. Signeds on passing Trains, — Foremen must 
very carefully observe the signals carried by 
trains, and be sure that ail following trains, 



- LOUISVILLE &- NASHVILLE RULES. 219 

running on the same schedule, have passed, be- 
fore obstructing the track. 

47. Track-Walker. — Foremen. will send an ex- 
perienced and reliable man every inorning to 
walk over the whole section, to examine care- 
fully all joints and rails, and to look for broken 
rails and burned joint-ties. This man must start 
on his trip of inspection in a direction opposite 
to that in which the section force goes out. 
The track-walker should carry with him a few 
bolts and spikes, a wrench, and a tamping-pick. 
He is expected to put in missing bolts, tighten 
loose nuts, replace broken spikes, and raise low 
joints. 

48. Watching in Bad Weather. — During heavy 
rains _and storm.s section -foremen must take 
every precaution to prevent accidents ; all 
hands must be placed on duty, and every part 
of the section watched. They must be supplied 
with the necessary signals and torpedoes to 
stop trains. After every freshet culverts and 
drains must be inspected, and all drift-wood 
immediately removed. 

49. Visit by Special Watchmen, — Section-fore- 
men must notice whether special watchmen 
attend to their duties by frequently visiting 
them at night, and reporting them if found neg- 
ligent. 

50. Material Piled near Track. — Whenever 
wood, cross-ties, lumber, or other material is 



220 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

piled along the track, notice must be taken by 
section-foremen that it is at least six feet out 
from the rail. If found nearer, it must be at 
once removed to the proper distance. Signals 
or mile-posts must not be placed nearer the rail 
than six feet. 

51. Every One to Work, — Every foreman will 
engage in his v/ork personally, and must require 
all laborers under him to faithfully perform 
their duties. 

MATERIAL. 

52. Responsibility m Regard to Material, — Sec- 
tion-foremen will be held strictly responsible 
for all tools and material left in their charge. 
They must report promptly any loss of the same 
to their immediate superior officer. They will 
not be permitted to lend the tools or material 
of the company to any person under any cir- 
cumstances. 

All material, new or old, must be kept locked 
up in tool-houses as far as possible, or under the 
eye of the section-foreman. 

53. Where to put Scrap Iron. — All scrap rails 
should be piled up at side tracks ready for ship- 
ment by freight. All the iron on hand for 
repairs of track must be well assorted, and piled 
upon rough platforms along straight lines of 
straight track as much as possible. 

54. Care of Old Spikes, — All spikes in the 



LOUISVILLE &^ NASHVILLE RULES, 221 

track must be carefully drawn, with the view to 
use them again. No old ties are to be thrown 
aside with spikes left in them. All old spikes 
which cannot be used again must be carefully- 
gathered up and well boxed, or put in kegs 
securely fastened. The section-foreman Avill 
ship them by regular freight, with bill of lading, 
to headquarters, as may be directed for each 
division of the road.^ 

'^ Each foreman is charged with the amount 
of new spikes furnished him, and the accounts 
at the end of every six months should show 
nearly the same amount of new spikes furnished 
and old ones returned, provided no- new tracks 
are laid." 

55. Requisitions for Material. — Section-fore- 
men, as well as supervisors and road-masters, 
will make requisitions in writing for all neces- 
sary material, such as cross-ties, spikes, chairs, 
splices, bolts, nuts, washers, and tools, and will 
hand them to their immediate superior officer. 

56. Responsible for Loose Property of Rail- 
road Company, — Section-foremen will have care 
of, and be responsible for, all loose property of 
the company, such as wood, ties, lumber, scrap 
iron, etc., and will notice that none of it is lost 
or stolen. 



* This is objectionable. All shipments of scrap should be made in coal-cars, 
not boxed or barrelled. — C, L, 



222 THE ROAD-iM ASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

ACCIDENTS. 

57. Prompt Action ivJten Accidents Occnr, — In 
case of accidents to trains the nearest section- 
foreman will at once take his whole force to the 
assistance of the train, even if it is not on his 
own section. Conductors always send for assis- 
tance to the nearest section-house, and section 
men must obey at all times, night or day, any 
call from conductors or engineers of trains in 
distress. If notified of broken rails on adjoining 
sections, they will at once go and make the 
track safe for the passage of trains. 

58. Whom to Obey, — When assisting a train 
delayed by an accident, section-foremen will 
act under the direction of the conductor until 
the arrival of the supervisor or road-master. 

59. Watchmen at a Wreck, — In case of a wreck, 
foremen must at once appoint the necessary 
watchmen to prevent freight or company's pro- 
perty from being stolen. Said watchmen are 
to remain on duty until the goods are removed. 

60. Report of Injnries, — In case of injury to 
any person, caused by the operations of the 
road, an immediate report must be made by the 
section-foreman to the supervisor or road-master, 
so that the officer whose duty it is to take action 
in such matters can be notified. 

HAND AND PUSH CARS. 

61. Care of Cars, — When hand or push cars 



LOUISVILLE &> NASHVILLE RULES. 223 

are not in actual use they must be lifted off the 
track and placed entirely clear of passing trains. 
When not within sight of the men they must 
be locked, and no car shall be used without the 
knowledge of the section-foreman. 

62. Foremen Responsible for Cars, — No car 
will be run at night or on Sunday, except in 
case of actual necessity. All damages to cars 
or to company's material and tools in charge of 
the foreman, caused by his own neglect, will 
be paid for by him. Cars must be kept under 
lock and key, and in no case be used for per- 
sonal purposes. 

63. Use of Cars in Foggy Weather and at 
Night, — Great care must be exercised when it 
is necessary to use hand or push cars during 
foggy weather or in the night. Foremen must 
always accompany the car. 

64. Hand- Car never attached to Trains, — In no 
case is it allowed to attach a hand or push car 
to a train in motion. 

65. Rails not Carried on Hand- Cans, — Rails 
must never be carried on hand-cars, except in 
cases of emergency. 

V/ATER-STATIONS DURING FREEZING WEATHE^R. 

65. Water-Stations in Cold Weather, — During 
extreme cold Aveather, when water-stations are 
likely to suffer by frost, foremen on whose sec- 
tion a water-station is located, if called upon by 



224 TH2 ROAD-MASTER'3 ASSISTANT, 

the pumper, will send a man to the tank, who 
shall keep up a fire in the stove during the 
night, and see that everything is in working 
order during the absence of the pumper. The 
section-foreman will put the expense of this in 
his time-book, properly classified, and charged 
to the respective water-station. 

POLICING. 

6j, Collect old Ties. — All the old ties which 
are taken from the track must be gathered up 
at the close of each day and put in some con- 
venient place for burning, or fuel and fencing. 

68. Road- Crossings, — All highway and farm 
crossings must be kept in the best possible re- 
pair and not obstructed by any'material. Fore- 
men are specially directed not to leave hand or 
repair cars unnecessarily on crossings. 

69. Burned Cross- Ties in Track and Extinguish- 
ing Fires, — Cross-ties partly burned by fire 
dropped from engines must be at once replaced. 
Track watchmen and section gangs must put 
out fires on track or adjoining fences wherever 
seen. They Avill also remove all combustible 
material from the vicinity of tracks and bridges. 

70. Gather 7ip Scrap Iron and lost Freight, — 
Section forces must pick up each day any ma- 
terial dropped from engines and cars, such as 
draw-bars, car-doors, brakes, bolts, nuts, or 
other property belonging to the company, and 



LOUISVILLE C^ NASHVILLE JOULES. 22 5 

take It to the tool-house, from Avhencc it will be 
shipped as directed. 

All packages or articles of freight that may 
fall from any train must be taken to the nearest 
station agent, who will forward it to the super- 
intendent of transportation. 

71. Cutting Weeds and Bicshes. — Weeds, 
bushes, trees, and grass growing on the right 
of way must be cut down close to the ground 
over the entire section before seed-time. They 
must be collected and burned promptly during 
the month of August. In burning rubbish so 
gathered care is to be taken that the adjoining 
fences are not injured by fire. 

72. Neat Wood- Yards. — Foremen must pay at- 
tention to the condition of the wood-yards on 
their respective sections. They must see that 
the wood platforms are properly filled for the 
trains ; that no pieces are left in the ditches ; 
and that the yards are neat and clean. 

73. Side Tracks and Platforms in good Order. — 
All side tracks must be maintained in good 
order, and the platforms and station grounds 
should always present a cleanly appearance. 

74. Bright Signals, — All switch signals must 
be kept bright and in good order. 

75. WatcJi and Repair Tele gr a pit Wires,— Fore- 
men will pay particular attention to the tele- 
graph wires, and see that they are not obstruct- 
ed or down on the ground. If broken or 



226 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

crossed they must be repaired at once in a 
temporary manner, and notice sent to the near- 
est office by special messenger. 

^6. Notice Boundary Lines. — Foremen will 
make themselves familiar with all the boundary 
lines of the company's property on their re- 
spective sections, and see that no person en- 
croaches upon them. 

No person is allowed to erect fences and 
buildings or otherwise occupy the company's 
ground without special permit. Any such ac- 
tion must be reported in a Avritten statement to 
the supervisor or road-master, giving the name 
and residence of the party who trespasses upon 
the company's property. 

REPORTS. 

TJ. Report Disrespect of Signals, — Section- 
foremen will promptly report in writing to 
their immediate superior officer any failure of 
train-men to respect their signals, giving the 
number of train and engine. 

78. Report Accidents by Telegraph, — They will 
report all accidents occurring on their sections 
by telegraph to the road-master or superinten- 
dent of road department as soon as possible, ac- 
cording to special instructions, giving in brief 
the nature of the accident. The telegram must 
be followed by a full report on the proper 



LOUISVILLE &- NASHVILLE RULES. 22/ 

blank, and given or sent by the foreman to his 
superior officer. 

In case of very serious accidents, requiring a 
collection of forces and material, foremen must 
immediately report by despatch in full to the 
superintendent of road department. 

79. Damage to Stock. — Foremen will promptl}^ 
report all horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs killed 
or crippled by a train on their sections, on 
proper blanks furnished them. 

80. Damage by Fir£, — An immediate report 
in writing must be made by the section-foreman 
to his superior officer of all fences burnt, or 
other property and material — whether belong- 
ing to the company or to private parties — de- 
stroyed by fire from the sparks of passing loco- 
motives. The report should state the location, 
the exact damage done, the lineal feet of fencing 
destroyed, the dimensions of the wood-pile 
burned, and the owner of the property. 

81. Use of Time- Books, and t^ken to Send tJiem 
in, — The time-books must be written up every 
night of the day which has closed. The time 
of foremen and men must be given for each 
kind of work under the proper heading in the 
book. 

Time-books, as well as monthly reports of all 
tools and material on hand, whether good or 
bad, and reports of new tools and materials re- 
ceived during the month, must be handed by 



228 THE ROAD-MASTEirS ASSISTANT, 

the foreman to his superior officer on tlie last 
day of each month. 

82. Discharge noticed i?i Time-Books. — ^When 
any employee is discharged the foreman will 
write on the page of the time-book containing 
his name, ^' Discharged and time given/' 

83. Pay Day of those who Leave the Service. — 
Employees of this department who leave the 
service of the company of their own accord 
will not receive pay for their service until the 
regular pay-day in the month following that in 
which they leave the service. Foremen must 
so inform men before engaging them. 

84. Pozver to Discharge and Employ Men. — 
Section foremen may discharge or suspend from 
duty any employee under their control. 

They must not engage more than the regular 
force allowed. 

85. Strict Discipline and Attention to Ditty. — 
Section foremen are not at liberty to excuse 
any. neglect of their men m the performance of 
duty, but are required to discharge them in all 
cases upon the first evidence of unfaithfulness.* 

86. Report High Speed of Freight Trains. — 
Section foremen must report all freight trains 
which they may notice passing by at a higher 
speed than schedule time allows ; and also re- 
port promptly to their immediate superior any 

* l>ischarges are frequent when the superior is unfeithful. They are 
rare when mercy rules. The law of kindness governs best. — C. L. 



LOUISVILLE 6r> NASHFILLB RULES. 22() 

other carelessness or misdemeanor of train- 
men. 

87. General Instructions regarding ilie Duty of 
Section-Men, — Section-foremen must remember 
that while their particular duty is to look after 
their own sections, to keep them in safe running 
order, and to steadily improve their condition, 
they must not fail to do everything to make the 
road secure and to prevent accidents, even 
though they may have to perform the duty of 
some other man. 

FOR CONDUCTORS OF CONSTRUCTION TRAINS. 

88. By ivlioni Appointed and the Extent of their 
Responsibility. — The conductors of all ditching 
and material trains are appointed by the road- 
master, subject to the approval of the division 
superintendent, and are responsible for the safety 
and proper care of their trains, for the good con- 
duct of all the men employed thereon, and for 
any material entrusted to their care. 

89. Connection witJi Transportation Department. 
— They must obey all orders for the safe move- 
ment of their trains from the train-despatcher or 
superintendent of division, and they must faith- 
fully observe all time-card rules. 

90. Dismissal for tlie Violation of Tiine-Card 
Rules. — ^Any violation of the existing time-card 
rules is at once followed by suspension from the 
charge of directing the movement of the train ; 



230 THE ROAD MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

but the conductor will still remain in charge of 
all the men, and will be responsible for the 
proper execution of all construction work until 
investigations are made, and he is reinstated or 
dismissed. In such cases the superintendent 
of transportation Avill immediately appoint a man 
to have temporary charge of the safe movement 
of the train oitly until the case is decided and 
a new appointment made by the road-master. 
Under no circumstances should a delay in the 
construction work occur. 

91. Passengei's on Constritction Trains. — No one 
except an officer of the road is permitted to ride 
on construction trains. 

92. Condition of Cars, — Conductors of work- 
trains must see that all the ditching and board- 
ing cars are in good running order; that the 
boarding cars are neat and clean at all times ; 
and that good, substantial food is furnished to 
the men. 

93. Business Information Required. — They must 
study the rules and instructions issued to all 
track and bridge men, and fully familiarize 
themselves with all kinds of work pertaining 
to the maintenance of track. 

Ditches must be cut as per directions to sec- 
tion foremen. 

94. Handling Material, — The greatest care 
must be taken in unloading material. Steel and 
iron rails must never be unloaded.v/hile cars are 



LOUISVILLE 6» NASHVILLE RULES. 23 I 

in motion ; and skids must be used to prevent 
bending and breaking the rails. 

95. Sitpcrvisor to be present zvhen Material is 
distributed, — Conductors must always notify the 
proper supervisor when ordered by the road- 
master to distribute material, such as cross-ties, 
iron, and ballast, so that the supervisor can in 
all cases be ^vith the train Avhen it is distributing 
material on his own division. 

96. Wiien to give Wood for Fuel, — Conductors 
must not give any employee wood or other ma- 
terial without the proper order from the road- 
master. 

97. Reports, — Conductors must make such 
monthly reports as are directed. 

On Monday of each week they must send to 
the road-master a written report of all the de- 
lays experienced during the past week on ac- 
count of not receiving orders promptly, or from 
other causes. 

98. Where iJie Train sJioidd be at Night. — From 
the first day of December to the first day of 
March they must always spend the night at a 
telegraph station ; and observe the same rule 
during the rest of the year without losing time. 

99. How to spend Time while waiting for 
Orders, — Whenever conductors of construction 
trains have delays at a station, whether in wait- 
ing for orders or from other causes, they must 
keep the v/hole force employed. There is no 



232 THE ROAD-MASTHWS ASSISTANT. 

place on the whole line where some kind of 
work is not needed, and no time will be wasted 
by a good conductor. When delays occur (and 
some are unavoidable), the men should be set to 
work on sidings, at cleaning station grounds, 
w^eeding ditches, ballasting, or whatever other 
v/ork is mostly needed. 

100. Prompt Relief after an Accident, and what 
to do, — In case of accidents to trains they will 
hasten to give assistance as soon as called upon 
by the superintendent of transportation or train- 
despatcher, and they must do everything in their 
power to facilitate the quick and safe passage 
of trains. They must take full charge of any 
wreck until the arrival of the supervisor or 
road-master. 

When wrecked cars are burned the numbers 
and initials must be carefully noted and re- 
ported to the road-master. 

1 01. Report insitfficie7it Motive Pozver. — Con- 
ductors must report at once in writing to road- 
master whenever inadequate motive power or 
incompetent engine-men are furnished them. 

102. Permission to leave Train, — Whenever it 
is necessary for them to leave the train they 
must ask permission to do so from the road- 
master, and also notify the train-despatcher, so 
that in case of accident the supervisor or road- 
master can take the train or make another ap- 
pointment. Under no circumstances will they 



LOUIS villi: &- NASHVILLE LULLS. 2 7,3 

leave their men v/ithout permission from the 
road-master. 

rOH TRACK SUPERVISORS.^' 

103. Extent of Duty, — Wherever the sj^stem 
of track supervisors is established the super- 
visors v/ill have immediate charge of all the 
foremen of sections and road v/atchmen on their 
respective divisions, and arc authorized to dis- 
charge any employee for neglect of duty. They 
will, however, in case an accident results from 
the negligence of an employee, report the case 
to the road-master. 

104. Lengtli of Divisions. — Supervisors will 
have charge of divisions from thirty to sixty 
miles in length, so that they can walk over the 
entire length every week. They are held re- 
sponsible for the safe-keeping of their divisions.' 

105. Audit and Cotlect Time-books. — They will 
carefully see that the time of the men and the 
rate of pay are correctly reported and properly 
classified on the time-books. 

They will note the time each foreman is 
absent from work, and make proper deductions 
on time-books. 

* All the work of supervisor and road-master properly belongs under one 
head, viz , the road-master, Ths chief engineer should exercise the duties of 
general road-master. If an assistant is necessary let the term be assistant 
engineer. The best way to reach tJie men is to have no authority between 
the Toad-master and the chief engineer. The road-master should have entire 
supervision of his division, with the exception of the bridges, unless in the 
rare case of his being also a bridgeman — C L. 



234 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

On the last day of each month they will go 
over the entire division, collect time-books, 
make notes and explanations, approve each 
man's time by endorsing his own name on the 
page allotted to it, and forvvard the time-books 
to the proper person, as may be directed, 

1 06. Approve Discliargc-Tickets. — They will 
countersign all discharge-tickets given by their 
foremen, and see that the proper memorandum 
in such cases is made in the time-book. 

107. Close Attention to Jiis Division. — Each 
supervisor must walk over at least five miles 
of his division every day, and over the whole 
division once a week. Passenger trains must 
be used b}^ them only in case of necessity. 

They must spend all their time out on the 
road, and see that foremen and laborers fully 
understand and perform their duties. 

108. Notice the Condition of Track and Use of 
Material, — They must pay untiring attention to 
the proper adjustment and alignment of the 
track, and to the economical use of all mate- 
rial. 

109. Nezv Iron and Steel to be laid with Special 
Care. — They must personally observe whether 
new iron and steel laid on curves conform in 
aliofnment and elevation of the outer rail with 
the rules given for section foremen. 

no. Shims for Expansion. — They must keep 
themselves supplied with iron shim.s to test the 



LOUISVILLE &^ NASHVILLE RULES. 235 

distance between the ends cf rails, according to 
the season of the year. 

Track-Gauges, — They should also frequently 
examine the track-gauges, and compare with 
the standard. 

111. Familiarity with Land Lines, — They 
should be thoroughly posted in regard to the 
right of way and other land boundaries on their 
respective divisions, and keep constant watch 
against infringemxCnt by adjoining occupants. 

112. Number of Men at Work to be ICnozvn. — • 
They should keep a memorandum of the num- 
ber of men at work on each section, and com- 
pare with the reports returned w^th the section- 
foremen. 

113. Requisitions for Material^ and Receipts for 
same. — All requisitions for material, such as 
cross-ties, spikes, chairs, splices, bolts, nuts, 
Avashers, tools, etc., must be made in writing to 
the road-master. 

When material is ready for delivery to the 
section-foreman the supervisor must make out a 
written statement of the amount received and 
of its condition, and send the same to the road- 
master as soon as possible. 

114. Szvitch-ICeys for Foremen. — Supervisors 
will see that each foreman is supplied with o}.e 
switch -key and gives a written receipt for the 
same. lu case the key is not returned when 
the foreman leaves the service of the company 



236 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

five dollars (tS5) will be deducted from the 
amount then due the foreman. Supervisors 
will make the proper remark respecting the 
switch-key on the discharge-ticket. 

115. Require from Foremen an Account of 
Tools, — When a foreman is discharged or leaves 
the service of the compan}^ supervisors must 
make out a correct list of tools on hand. They 
Vvdll note all tools missing or not accounted for, 
and send such reports at once to the road-m.aster^ 
so that the proper settlement can be made. In 
all such cases they will write on the discharge- 
ticket, '^ Tools not accounted for as per reports 

116. Connection with Construction Trains. — 
They will have charge and control of all con- 
struction trains while at work on their respec- 
tive divisions, and will personally see to the pro- 
per distribution of all material for the use of 
their foremen. They m.ust always be with con- 
struction trains when distributing material on 
their divisions, especially when unloading iron 
and steel rails, and see that no time is lost in so 
doing. 

1 1 7. Report of Accidents^ and Personal Attention 
to a Wreck, — In case of accidents on their divi- 
sions they will send the reports of the section- 
foremen, certified and, if necessary, corrected 
by themselves, to the road-master. On being 
notified of a wreck they wilY immediately pro- 
ceed to it and take charge of all track-men. 



LOUISVILLE &^ NASHVILLE RULES. 23/ 

They will superintend the work of clearing- the 
wreck in the absence of the road-master. 

1 1 8. Distribute Printed Instructions, — All print- 
ed circulars, instructions, and orders to section- 
foremen or^vatchmen must be delivered in per- 
son by the supervisor, who will read and ex- 
plain the same to all his foremen. 

119. Use of Signals to be Explained to Subordi- 
nates, — Supervisors of track must see that all 
the rules for signals with flags and torpedoes 
and other instructions are understood and 
obeyed by every man in their employ ; and 
that all their foremen and watchmen are sup- 
plied with time-tables and Avatches while on 
duty. They must compare time with their fore- 
men at least once a w^eek. 

120. Supervisor s Duties may be Performed by 
Road-Master, — Where there is no supervisor of 
track the above duties will be executed by the 
road-master in addition to the following.^ 

FOR ROAD-MASTERS. 

121. Nature of Duties, — Road-masters must 
pass over 3. part of their division every day, and 
over their whole division — walking or on a 
hand-car at slow speed — ojiee every montJi, They 
must see that the track and culverts are in safe 

* I do not approve the system of supervisors and road-masters also. The 
more heads there are before the chief-engineer reaches the men, the worse it 
is.— C. L. 



238 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

condition and in good order. They must re- 
quire supervisors of track, foremen, and all em- 
ployees in their charge to make proper tise of 
material furnished for the repair and good main- 
tenance of road-bed, track, and other portions 
of the railroad committed to their charge. 

122. Always in Coinmttnication with Transpor- 
tation Department. — Road-masters, as well as su- 
pervisors of track, conductors of construction 
trains, and section-foremen, vnist at all times be 
ready ^ both night and day, to render any assist- 
ance that may be called for by the train-de- 
spatcher, master of transportation, or superin- 
tendent of transportation in ease of accidents or 
of detention to trains, and to provide facilities for 
the safe and quick movement of trains."^ 

123. Clear up every Wreck, and Report same from 
Personal Examination. — On receiving notice of 
a wreck or accident they must at once pro- 
ceed to the place, and i^k^ full charge and control 
of all track forces and construction trains ; put 
the track in condition for the safe passage of 
trains ; and remove the wreck with the quickest 
possible despatch. When cars are burned they 
must note the number and initials of the cars so 
destroyed, and send a written report of the same 
to their superior officer. 

* The best mode of managing wrecks is to let t"he transportation depart- 
ment hanila ths wracking-car with the shopman, who are more experienced 
with the tooh, and after the wreck is cut of the way or loaded the engineer 
takes char^re with his forca and rebuilds track or bridge. — C. L. 



LOUISVILLE ^ NASHVILLE RULES, 239 

In all cases a written report in full, giving the 
amount of damage done, must be sent in. 

1 24. Enquiry and Report respecting A ccidcnts, — • 
They must enquire carefully in regard to every 
accident that may occur upon the road, to as- 
certain the cause of it, and they will write a full 
report thereof to their superior officer. 

They must reserve such material as broken 
rails, cross-ties, axles, or other debris which may 
be of value in determining fully the cause of the 
accident. 

125. Connection zvitJi Construction Trains, — 
Road-masters must have full charge of all con- 
struction trains on their division, and lay out the 
work for them on each subdivision as may be 
required. They must also see that the ditching- 
cars are kept in good order, and that boarding- 
cars are clean and tidy. They will often ex- 
amine into the boarding arrangements of all 
their men, and see that wholesome and suffi- 
cient food is furnished them. 

126. Report ttnsatisfactory Motive Poiver, — It is 
also the duty of the road-master to see that each 
construction train is supplied with a good en- 
gine and a competent engineer. In case insuffi- 
cient motive power is furnished to his train he 
must at once report the matter to his superior 
officer. Construction trains, being very expen- 
sive, require the best kind of motive power for 
their economical working. 



240 THE ROAD-MASTLR'S ASSISTANT. 

127. Receive Material delivered by Contract. — 
Road-masters must personally receive all mate- 
rial contracted to be delivered on their divisions, 
such as cross-ties, wood, and ballast. They 
must in all cases enforce strictly the printed 
specifications. 

128. Piling Cross-Ties. — Cross-ties must be 
raised from the ground and symmetrically cross- 
piled, not higher than six feet, so that each tie 
can be properly inspected and marked with 
hammer and brush. 

129. Inspecting Wood for Fuel. — When wood 
is taken up the measurement is to be put down 
in the book, after making proper deductions for 
under size, bad piling, or other deficiencies. All 
wood received is to be cross-piled on the top, 
and each rick is to be profusely marked all 
around with lam.pblack or whitewash. Markhig 
in this manner will prevent dishonest parties 
from disturbing the pile, and appropriating 
wood already paid for to repile again for mea- 
surement. 

Ricks should never be over sixty feet in length 
and six feet high ; a space of five feet is to be 
left between the ricks in order to give free ac- 
cess all around in inspecting and marking it. 

130. Measurement of Ballist. — In receiving 
rock or gravel ballast road-masters must see 
tlmt the stone is piled closely, and that the bal- 
last is of the proper size and quality, as con- 



LOUISVILLE ^ NASHVILLE RULES. 24I 

tracted for. Deductions must be made for loose 
piling or other deficiencies.^' 

131. How near the Track Material may be left. 
— Road masters must see that nothing is piled 
nearer than six feet from the main track and 
sidings. 

132. Notice other Employees besides Track-Men, 
—They will keep a general oversight of all work 
performed on their divisions by contractors or 
bridge carpenters, lest anything should interfere 
with the safety of the track. 

133. Reports to Superior Officer, — They must 
make such monthly reports to their superior 
officer as may be directed. 

1 34. Discharge and Suspension of Subordinates, 
— They are authorized to discharge any super- 
visor of track, conductor of construction train, 
section-foreman, road watchman, or other sub- 
ordinate for neglect of duty ; but should an ac- 
cident result from such negligence they will 
suspend him from duty, and report the case to 
their superior officer, so that an investigation 
can be made. 

135. Report of Violation of Time- Card Rules by 
Train-Men, — They must make themselves ac- 
quainted with all the instructions issued for the 
government of trains and train-men, and must 
report to their superior officer in writing any 

* This refers to g^ravel hauled by farmers from creek-bottoms — a practice 
on the Louisville & Nashville Railroad. — C. L. 



242 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

neglect of duty or violation of rules that may 
come under their notice. 

136. Explain whatever Supervisors and Fore- 
men do not understand. — They must take pains 
to instruct supervisors and section-foremen in 
regard to their duties, and satisfy themselves 
that every employee fully understands all the 
instructions issued for him. 

137. Acquire Information about the Wear of 
Rails, — Road-masters will often make careful 
investigations into the wear of rails, fish-plates, 
spikes, washers, nuts, and cross-ties, and will 
encourage supervisors and section-foremen to 
make the same observation. 

138. Reports of nezv Iron and Steel laid every 
Six Months, — They must carefully mark on their 
iron profiles all the new iron laid from time to 
time, giving the year and the exact location with 
reference to the nearest mile-post. This must 
be done in addition to a detailed written report, 
made every six months, of all new iroa or steel 
rails laid. 

In this way a correct account of the wear 
with reference to tonnage can be kept in the 
Chief- Engineer's office. 



LOUISVILLE &- NASHVILLE TABLES. 



U3 








S 


»— I 






.4^ 


w 


1 


H-1 


pq 


T? 


< 


s 


H 


Cj 



ba 
o 



I 

o 



U r 



C C 

o 

















W 




Old Name. 


;5' 


\ 


; 


: 


; 


<^ 
















^ 












t-^ 


»r 










Radius of Uniform 




n 


a 


o> 


t>. 


-<^ 






Curve. 











VO 







00 


From Point of Tongue 


c 

•" H 


VD 


^1 




\5» 

7^ 




► -•( 


to Point of r rog. 














u 




cti 


t^ 





n 


o> 


fO 


H 









to 


10 




Tf 




^ 


"0 




vb 


"■q 


V) 


(-i 




00 


CO 


CO 


M- 


CO 





u 


Frps Angle. 











0' 












CO 


00 








H 


n 












►- 


>-• 


M 









CO 





en 


CN 


CO 






t^ 


VO 


m 


\n 


""i- 


<<*• 




Number of Frog. 


























H 


H 




M 


M 



Old Name of Frog. 


< 


"A 


cd 
.0 


< 




p4 


"A 


n 


Radius of Uniform 
Curve. 





LO 

o" 

H 



vS" 


VO 


q 


VO 

CO 


Mid-Ordinate from Point 
of Tongue to Point of 
Frog. 


.£h 


IT) 
M 


in 

H 


10 


in 

H 


lO 
H 


From Point of Tongue 
to Point of Frog. 


ft. in. 
100 


00 




o> 




VO 




vS 


From Head-block to 
Point of Frog. 


.So 




VO 
VO 


in 

CO 
IT) 


M 


M 
CO 


Length of Tongue-rail 
(or Slide-rail). 


.So 


VO 


CO 


l-l 





VO 

H 



. , From Point of Tongue 



CO 



^ to Point of Fro£ 

Q 



00 



M OV 



From End of Tongue- 
rail to Point of Frog. 



Length of Tongue-rail. 





^ 















Tj- 


^ 


^ 


VO 


^ 


CO 


Frog Angle. 


'^l- 





o» 


CO 


CO 


« 
























in 


VO 


t^ 


r^ 


CO 


0^ 



Proportion or Number of Frog- 



M O 00 



244 l'^^ ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

TABLE II. 
Bill of Switch-Timbers for Frogrs 1 to 10 and 1 to 0.5. 



SINGLE-STUB SWITCH. 


THREE-THROW SWITCH. 


No. of 
Pieces 


Length. 


Size. 


Feet, 
B. M. 


No. of 
Pieces. 


Length. 


Size. 


Feet, 
B. M. 


I 


I6 


10X12 


i6o 


3 


9 


7X9 


142 


5 


9 


7X9 


236 


I 


20 


IOXI2 


200 


4 


9i 


7X9 


199 


3 


9i 


7X9 


150 


3 


lO 


7X9 


157 


3 


10 


7X9 


157 


3 


io|- 


7X9 


165 


2 


io|- 


7X9 


IIO 


3 


II 


7X9 


173 


2 


II 


7X9 


116 


3 


Hi 


7X9 


181 


2 


Hi 


7X9 


121 


3 


12 


7X9 


189 


2 


12 


7X9 


126 


3 


I2i 


7X9 


197 


2 


I2i 


7X9 


131 


2 


13 


7X9 


136 


2 


13 


7X9 


136 


2 


I3i 


7XIO 


157 




I3i 


7X9 


70 


2 


14 


7XIO 


163 




14 


7X9 


74 


2 


I4i 


7X9 


152 




I4i 


7X9 


76 


2 


15 


7X9 


158 




15 


7X9 


■ 158 


2 


i5i 


7X9 


163 




I5i 


7X9 


81 


2 


i6 


7X9 


168 




16 

i6i- 


7X9 
7X9 


84 
174 






• 






2,754 




17 

I7i 


7X9 
7X9 


89 
92 










18 


7X10 


105 










i8i 


7X10 


108 










19 


7X10 


III 










i9i 


7X10 


114 










20 


7X9 


105 










20J 


7X9 


108 








I 


21 


7X9 


no 








I 


2li 


7X9 


113 










22 


7X9 


115 










22^ 


7X9 


118 










23 


7X9 


121 










23i 


7X9 


123 








3,638 



LOUISVILLE <5r» NASHVILLE TABLES. 



245 



TABLE III. 



Bill of Switch.-Tim'bers for Frogs 1 to and. 1 to 7.5. 



SINGLE-STUB SWITCH. 


THREE-THROW SWITCH. 


No. of 
Pieces. 


Length. 


Size. 


Feet, 

B. M. 

1 


1 

No. of 
Pieces. 

! 


Length. 


Size. 


Feet, 
B.M. 


I 


16 


10X12 


160 


1 

3 


9 


7X9 


I-I2 


3 


9 


7X9 


142 


I I 


20 


10X12 


200 


3 


9i 


7X9 


150 


i 2 


9i 


7X9 


100 


3 


10 


7X9 


157 


i ^ 


10 


7X9 


105 


3 


loi 


7X9 


165 


2 


loi 


7X9 


IIO 


3 


II 


7X9 


173 ; 


\ 2 


II 


7X9 


116 


3 


III 


7X9 


181 


! I 


Hi 


7X9 


60 


2 


12 


7X9 


126 




12 


7X9 


63 


2 


I2i 


7X9 


131 




I2i 


7X9 


131 


2 


13 


7X10 


152 


1 I 


13 


7X9 


68 


I 


I3i 


7X10 


79 


i I 


i3i 


7X9 


70 


I 


14 


7X10 


82 


1 I 


14 


7X9 


74 


2 


I4i 


7X9 


152 


1 


I4i 


7X9 


76 


2 


15 


7X9 


158 




15 


7Xg 


158 


2 


I5i 


7X9 


163 


I 


I5i 


7X9 


81 


I 


16 


7X9 


84 


I 


16 
i6i 


7X9 
7X9 


84 
87 












2,255 


i I 

1 


17 

I7i 
18 


7X9 

7X10 

7X10 


89 
102 










105 










! I 


i8i 


7X10 


108 








i 


i I 


19 


7X10 


III 










' I 


I9i 


7X9 


102 












20 


7X9 


105 












20^ 


7X9 


108 












21 


7X9 


no 












22 


7X9 


115 












22^ 


7X9 


118 








1 




2{ 


7X9 


121 




3,019 



246 



THE road-maste:vs assistant. 



TABLE IV. 



Bill of Switcli Timbers for Frog-s 1 to 7. 



SINGLE-STUB SWITCH. 


THREE-THROW SWITCH. 


No 
Pieces. 


Length. 


Size. 


Feet 
B. M. 


No. of 
Pieces. 


Length. 


Size. 


Feet. 
B. M. 


I 


16 


10X12 


160 




9 


7X9 


142 


2 


9 


7X9 


94 




20 


10X12 


200 


3 


9i 


7X9 


150 




9* 


7X9 


50 


3 


10 


7X9 


157 


I 


10 


7X9 


52 


3 


io4- 


7X9 


165 




loi 


7X9 


IIO 


2 


ri 


7X9 


116 




II 


7X9 


116 


2 


Hi 


7X9 


120 




Hi 


7X9 


60 


2 


12 


7X9 


126 




12 


7X9 


83 


2 


124- 


7X9 


131 




I2i 


7X9 


i3r 


2 


13 


7X10 


152 




13 


7X9 


68 


I 


I3i 


7X10 


79 




I3i 


7X9 


70 


I 


14 


7X10 


82 




14 


7X9 


74 


I 


I4i 


7X9 


76 




I4i 


7X9 


76 


2 


15 


7X9 


158 




15 


7X9 


Z^ 


I 


i5i 


7X9 


81 


I 


3 5i 


7X9 


81 


2 


16 


7X9 


16S 




16 


7X9 


84 










I 


i6i 


7X9 


V 












2,015 




17 


7X9 


89 










■^ 


I7i 
18 


7X10 
7X10 


102 








105 










19 


7X10 


III 










I9i 


7X10 


114 










20 


7X9 


105 










21 


7X9 


IIO 










21-i 


7X9 


113 










22 


7X9 


115 










23 


7X9 


121 










24 


7X9 


126 








2,754 



LOUISVILLE &= NASHP'ILLE TABLES. 



247 



TABLE V. 

Bill of Switch-Timljers for Frogs 1 to 6. 



SINGLE-STUB SWITCH. 


THREE-THROW SWITCH. 


No. of 
Pieces. 


Length, 


Size. 


Feet, 
B. M. 


No. of 
Pieces, 


Length. 


Size. 


Feet, 
B. M. 


I 


16 


IOXI2 


160 


3 


9 


7X9 


143 


2 


9 


7X9 


94 




20 


10X12 


200 


2 


9i 


7X9 


loa 




9i 


7X9 


50 


2 


lO 


7X9 


105 




10 


7X9 


105 


3 


io4- 


7X9 


165 




lO^ 


7X9 


55 


2 


11^ 


7X9 


116 




II 


7X9 


116 


2 


Hi 


7X9 


121 




Hi 


7X9 


60 


2 


12 


7X9 


126 




12 


7X9 


63 


I 


I2i 


7X9 


66 




I2-I 


7X9 


66 


2 


13 


7X10 


152 




13 


7X9 


63 


T 


I3i 


7X10 


79 




14 


7X9 


74 


I 


14 


7X10 


82 




I4i 


7X9 


76 


I 


i4i 


7X9 


76 




15^ 


7X9 


79 


2 


15 


7X9 


, 158 




i5i 


7X9 


81 


I 


I5i 


7X9 


81 




16 


7X9 


84 


I 


i6 


7X9 


84 




i6i 

17^ 


7X9 

7X10 

7X10 


87 
102 








1,765 




18 


105 












i8i 

-1 


7X10 


108 










i9i 


7X10 


114 










20i 


7X9 


io5 










21 


7X9 


HO 










22 


7X9 


115 










23 


7X9 


121 










24 


7X9 


126 








2,415 



APPENDIX III. 



SPECIFICATIONS FOR A PERFECT SUB- 
DIVISION ON THE PENNSYLVANIA 
RAILROAD. 

The following specifications were issued un- 
der date of August i, 1874, by the Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad : 

SUPERSTRUCTURE. 

1. The track must be in good surface; on 
straight lines the rails must be on the same 
level, and on curves the proper elevation, as set 
down in the table, must be given to the outer rail 
and carried uniformly around the curve. This 
elevation should be commenced from ico to 150 
feet back of the point of curvature, depending 
on the sharpness of the curve, and increased 
uniformly to the latter point, w^here the full 
elevation is attained. The same method should 
be adopted in leaving the curve.* 

2. The track must be in good line. 

3. The splices must be properly put on with 

* I think that the distance given at which to commence the elevation is too 
general. The rule of 50 feet psr degree of curvature is preferable. — C. L. 

249 



250 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

the full number of bolts, nuts, stop- washers, 
and stop-chairs. The nuts must be screwed up 
tight. 

4. The joints of the rails must be exactly 
midway between the joint ties, and the joint on 
one line of rail must be opposite the centre of 
the rail on the other line of the same track. In 
winter a distance of five-sixteenths of an inch 
and in summer one-sixteenth of an inch must be 
left between the ends of the rails to allow for 
expansion.'^ 

5. The rails must be spiked both on the inside 
and outside on each tie, on straight lines as well 
as on curves. 

6. The cross-ties must be properly and evenly 
spaced, 16 ties to a 30-ft. rail, with 10 inches be- 
tween the edge of bearing surfaces at joints, 
with intermediate ties evenly spaced a distance 
of not over two feet from centre to centre ; and 
the ends on the outside, on double track, and 
on the right-hand side going north or west, on 
single track, must be lined up parallel with the 
rails. 

7. The ties must not, under any circum- 
stances, be notched, but, should they be twisted, 
must be made true with the adze, and the rails 
must have an even bearing over the surface of 
the ties. 

8. The switches and frogs must be kept well 

* I am in favor of even joints as a general rule. — C. L. 



ROAD-BED AND BALLAST, 



251 



lined up and in 



^^> 



r 



I 



>\ 



^ 



^> 



-V f-OT- 



!l 



good order. Switches must 
work easil}^ and safety- 
blocks must be attached to 
every switch-head. 

9. The switch signals must 
be kept bright and in good 
order. 

ROAD-BED AND BALLAST. 

10. The ballast must be 
broken evenly and not larger 
than a cube that will pass 
through a two and one-half 
inch ring. There must be a 
uniform depth of at least 
twelve inches of clean broken 
stone under the ties. The 
ballast must be filled up 
evenly between, but not 
above the top of the ties, 
and also between the main 
tracks and sidings, where 
there are any. In filling up 
between the tracks, coarse, 
large stones must be placed 
in the bottom in order to 
provide for drainage, but 
care should be taken to keep 
the coarse stone away from 
the ends cf the ties. At the 



252 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 

outer ends of the ties the ballast must be sloped 
off evenly to the sub-grade. 

1 1 . The road-crossing planks must be securely 
spiked ; the planking should be three-quarters 
of an inch below the top of rail, and two and 
one-half inches from the gauge-line: The ends 
and inside edges of planks should be bevelled 
off, 

DITCHES. 

12. The cross-section of ditches at the highest 
point must be of the width and depth as shown 
on the standard drawing, and graded parallel 
with the track so as to pass water freely during 
heavy rains and thoroughly drain the road-bed. 

13. The lines must be made parallel with the 
rails and well and neatly defined. 

14. The necessary cross-drains must be put in 
at proper intervals. 

15. Earth taken from ditches or elsewhere 
must be dumped over the banks and not left at 
or near the ends of the ties, but distributed 
over the slope. Earth taken out of the ditches 
in cuts must not be thrown on the slope. 

16. The channels or streams for a considerable 
distance above the road should be examined, 
and brush, drift, and other obstructions re- 
moved. Ditches, culverts, and box-drains 
should be cleared of all obstructions, and the 



POLICING, 253 

outlets and inlets of the same kept open to allow 
a free flow of water at all times. 



POLICING. 

17. The telegraph poles must be kept in pro- 
per position, and trees near the telegraph Ime 
must be kept trimmed to prevent the branches 
touching the wires during high winds. 

18. All old material, such as old ties, old rails, 
chairs, car material, etc., must be gathered up 
at least once a week and neatly piled at proper 
points. 

19. Briers and undergrowth on the right of 
way must be kept cut close to the ground. 

20. Station platforms and the grounds about 
stations must be kept clean and in good order. 



APPENDIX IV, 



THE FRENCH METRIC SYSTEM. 
Prepared by A. Mordecai, 

The standard of the French metric system is 
its unit of* length, called the metre ^ ~ 39.368505 
inches, or about 3 ft. 3I in. slack. 

Ten of these units squared form the are, or 
unit of square measure, = 1,076.3058 sq. ft., or 
^ of an acre, nearly. 

One-tenth of a metre cubed is the litre, or 
unit of cubic measure, = 1.05656 quarts, about 
i^ quarts, or 0.1135 peck — a full ^. 

The weight of the distilled water at its maxi- 
mum density which is contained in a vessel all 
of whose dimensions are equal to one one-hun- 
. dredth of a metre is the gramme, or unit of 
weight, =: 15.4331 grains, or 15J grains nearly, 
or about -^-^ of an ounce. 

These units, as shown below, are multiplied 
and divided successively by ten, just as the 
United States money is now divided into the 
eagle, or ten-dollar ; the dime, or one-tenth of a 
dollar ; the cent, or one-hundredth of a dollar ; 
the mill, or one thousandth of a dollar. 

254 



THE METRIC SYSTEM. 2$$ 

MEASURES OF LENGTH. 

Name. Abbreviation. 

Millimetre. ..mm. . . — 7-^-00 metre, = 0.03936 in , or -2^5- in. 
Centimetre . .centim.rr xio " == 0.39368 *' or | *' 
Decimetre, . .decim..— ~ro '* = 393685 '* or3Jfin, 

nearly ^ ft. 
Metre m. = 39.36850 in., or 3 ft. 3I 

in., about i-iV)'ds, 
Decametre. ..decam.= 10 metres, = 32.8071ft., or 32 ft. 91^ 

in , nearly 11 yds. 
Hectometre = 100 *' = 328 071 ft., or 328 ft. oj 

in. 
Kilometre. . .kilom..= 1,000 " =3280.71 ft., or 3,280ft. 8-,% 

in., about { mile. 
Myriametre =10,000 *' = 6.21346 mile, or 6i 

miles full. 

I U. S. inch, = 0.0254 metres. 

I " foot, = 0.30476 " 

I " yard, = 0.9144 " 

I *' mile, = 1.6093 kilometres. 



MEASURE OF SURFACE. 

Sq. millimetre = .001549 sq. in.,or^j5 sq. in. nearly. 

Sq. centimetre =.154988 *' cr ^5- " 

Sq. decimetre =15.4988 *' or i5|- *' " 

Sq. metre or centiare . . . . = 10.76305 sq.ft., or 10 J sq. ft. full. 

Sq. decametre or are = 1076.3058 " pr 1076^^ " nearly. 

Sq. hectometre or hectare. = 2.47086 acres, or 2^ acres nearly. 

Sq. kilometre = 24,7.086 '* or 247 ^^ acres, or 

about I sq. mile. 
Sq. myriametre = 24708.6 " or 38^ sq. miles full. 

I U. S. square inch, = 0.000645 ares. 

I '» . ♦' foot, = 0.09288 

I ** ** acra, = 40.4629 '* 



256 



THE ROAD MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 





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>dFO 



THE METRIC SYSTEM. 



257 



CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE. 

Millilitre c ...... yo-ja lure, = 0.06106 cubic inch, or 

-1% cubic inch. 
' — 0.61016 cubic inch, or 
f cubic inch. 
= 6.10165 cubic inch, or 

i pint, full. 
= 1.05656 quarts, or i-fg' 
qt., or \ peck, nearly. 
Decalitre, or centistere= 10 litres, == 2.64141 gallons, or 2f 

gals., full, or i bushel. 



Centilitre too 

Decilitre -iV 

Litre 



Hectolitre, or decistere. 100 

Kilolitre or stere 1,090 

Myrialitre , , ... . . 10,000 



== 3 53105 cubic ft., or 26f6 
gals., or 2J I bushels. 

=■ 35-3105 cubic ft., or ii% 
cubic yards. 

= 353-105 cubic ft., or 131^3 
cubic yards. 



I U. S. pint. 




= 0.4734 litres 


I *• quart, 




= 0.946Q *' 


I " gallon, 




== 3-785 " 


I '• peck, 




= 8.809 " 


I ' bushel. 




= 35.236 


I *' cubic inch, 


= 0.01638 " 


I *' cubic foot, 


= 283202 " 


I ** cubic y 


ard, 


= 0.7646 stere. 


I *' cord; 




= 3.624 



MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 



Milligramme..., 

Centigramme ji 

Decigramme -j^o' 

Gramme 



Toou gramme, 



0.015433 grain, or 

6^- grain. 
0.15433 grain, or 

i grain. 
1. 54331 grains, or 

i\ grains, full. 
15-4331 grains, or 

i5i grs., nearly. 



258 THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 

Decagramme 10 grammes, = 0.02204 pound, cr 

-A- lb. 
Hectogramme 100 ** = 0.22047 pound, or 

i lb , nearl\\ 
Kilogramme 1,000 *' == 2.2047 pound, or 

2t lbs., full. 
Myriagramme 10,000 '* = 22.047 pounds, or 

22-2-0 lbs., nearly. 
Quintal loo.oco '* -= 220.473 pounds, or 

220j lbs., nearly. 
Tonneau, or tonne. 1,000,000 *' = 2,204.737 pounds, or i 

ton of 2,240 lbs., 

nearly. 

\ kilo., = ifu pounds, about. 
I U. S. ounce, = 28.35 grammes. 
I '■ pound, «= 453 602 " 
I ton of 2,240 lbs., s= 1.C16 tonnes. 
I *' of 2,000 *• = 0.907 '* 



Note. — I have here appended an abstract of the metrical 
system for the convenience of those v/ho may have occasion 
to refer to it, but I must dissent from the attempt to introduce 
a new and equally arbitrary unit in place of our long-estab- 
lished foot. I do not, therefore, recommend the metric sys- 
tem by this presentation, but think that our own foot, deci- 
mally divided, is superior. — C. L. 



TRACK EQUIPMENT, 



259 




STEEL RAIL FROG, 




SWITCH-STAND, 



26o 



TH:: nOAD-MASTER'^S ASSISTANT. 




o i 2 ^ ^ a ea^ 

SEMAPHORE SIGNAL, 



TRACK EQUIPMENT, 



26} 




262 



771.3 I:OAD-MAST£R'S ACCISTANT. 




^ 



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MALLEABLE IRON HEAD-CHAIR. 
Designedly R. Gzirley^ and used onAtla7itic b' Great Western Railroads 



TRACK EQUIPMENT. 



263 







-J 

LIGHT RAIL, 

Full Szze^ 30 lbs, per yard. 



264 



THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT 




RAIL SECTION, PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. Half size. 
60 lbs. Per yard. 




LOUJSVILLE ^ NASHVILLE. RAIL AND JOINT SECTION, 

Half Size, 



TRACK EQUIPMENT, 



265 




KAIL AND JOINT SECTION, ERIE RAILWAY, Half sizu 







RAIL AND JOINT SECTION, PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD, 

Hal/ size. 



266 



TIIU ROAD-UASTIS,£:}S ASSISTANT. 




TRACK EQUIPMENT. 



267 



•ffl 



\.-------^ 



I 



5 



GROUND SWITCH LEVER STAND, 

X 




RAIL AND JOINT SECTION, PITTSBURGH CINCINNATI &" ST. 
LOUIS RAILWAY. 



268 



THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 




TRACK EQUIPMENT, 



269 




ORDINARY FISH-PLATE, 




THE FISHER JOINT, 




DOUBLE JOINT, A TLANTIC ^ GREA T WESTERN RAILROAD, 



2/0 



THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT. 



JPZ^;:^^ 




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,.,Z^£fT^^£&o^ja^<3Z^xy^:c&^?rn^^ 



!s: 




LA TIMER'S SAFETY-GUARD FOR TRAINS. 



Track equipmext. 



271 




REINFORCED JOINT USED ON PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD, 




LINDENTHAVS SUSPENDED RAIL JOINT, 
{The wooden slips in the angle o/t/ie jfis/i-J^lute serve as a nul-lock.) 




CUMMING'S CROSSING. 



272 



THE ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTANT, 




l^RACK EQVTPMEXT. 



273 




2/4 



TUB ROAD-MASTER'S ASSISTAXT. 




TRACK EQUIPMENT, 



2/5 




INDEX. 



Accidents, chapter on, 120. 

at switches, 130, 

caused by defective fro^s. 41, 

duty of construction trains as to, 232. 

duty of road-masters as to, 238. 

often caused by expansion, 19. 

reports of, rule as to, 191, 226, 236, 239. 
Accounts should be kept under supervision of engineer, 151. 
Adzing" ties, rule as to, 203. 
Atlantic & G-reat Western R. R, , rules for track department, 187. 

joint used on, 266, 269. 
Ballast, carelessness in dumping, 45. 

measurement of, rule as to, 240. 

mixed gravel and rock, rule for, 208. 

on curves, 49. 

purpose of, 208. 

rock, sizes for, etc., 208. 

rules for, 199,207. 

should be filled in between ties. 50. 

specifications for, Pennsylvania R. R., 251. 

various material for, 44. 
Baltimore & Ohio B, B.., cut of joint and rail section, 268. 
Bending" rails, 5- 

Bills of timber for switches, 1S2, 185, 243, 247. 
Board -bills, rule as to, 196. 
Brackets for guard-rail, rule as to, 216. 
Brahn's main line spring frog", cut of, 275. 

detachable steel-rail frog, cut of, 275. 
Bribes, rule as to, 197. 
Bridges, examination of, 117. 

'' rules as to, 191. 

laying cross-ties on, 10. 

should have a foot-walk, 70. 

spiking on, 32. 
Brush, cutting, rule as to, 225. 
Burnt fences, rule as to, 198. 
Cattle-guards, construction of, 34. 
Chords, table for determining elevation from, 182. 

277 



278 INDEX. 

Cinders, excellence of, for ballast, 45. 
Cla'W-bars, proper form of, 71. 

cut of, 159. 
Cleaning- frog-s and s-witches, rule as to, 216, 
Cleanliness, rule as to, 197. 
Closures in laying* steel, rule as to, 217. 
Collision?, 125. 

Compass, level, and square, use of, 14. 
Conductors of construction trains, rules for, 229. 
Coning" of wheels, effect on oscillation, 29. 
Construction trains, charge of, rule as to, 229, 236, 239. 
Cord-clamp, use of, 155. 

cut of, 159. 
Creeping- of track, 23. 
Crossing's, hig-li-way, 140. 

rules as to, 191. 
Crossing-plank raised by frost, etc., 79. 

specifications for, on Pennsylvania R. R..^ 251. 
Crossing's, railroad, 134. 

Cumming's, cut of, 271. 

Morden's T-rail, cut of, 274. 

steel- rail frog, 61. 
Crossing'-frogs, 85. 

Cross-over track, rule for placing frogs for, 171. 
Cross-ties, adzing, rule as to, 203. 

filling in ballast between, 50. 

for protecting switch-rods, rule as to, 211. 

laying on bridges, etc , 10. 

number of, per mile, at various distances, 25. 

piHng of, etc., rules as to, 219, 240. 

renewing, 97. 

rules as to, 2co. 

should be assorted, 2. 

should not vary in thickness, 3. 

** sighting in," 5, 13. 

spacing, rule as to, 203. 

specifications for, etc , 210. 

tamping with ballast, 47. 

(See also Joint-ties.) 
Crotch-frog's, table for putting in, 243. 
Culverts, cattle-guards, etc., 34. 

ditches, etc., 65. 

importance of large dimensions for, 67. 
Cultivating: right of way, rule as to, 198, 
Cumming's crossing*, cut of, 271. 

frog, cut of, 272. 



INDEX, 279 

Curves, ballasting on, 49. 

laying rails on, 18. 

widening gauge for, rule as to, 214. 
Curves, degree of, explanation of meaning, 59. 

table for determining, 58, 1S2. 
Curves, elevation of, 54- 

importance of using level for, 55. 

rule as to, 201, 204. 
Curving" rails, 18, 104, 162, 163. 

for turn-outs, 40. 

rule as to, 213. 
Cutting" brush, etc., rule as to, 19S, 225. 
Damag'es to persons, rules as to, 194. 

to live stock, " " 195. 

to property, etc , reports of, rule as to, 227. 
Dangler sig-nals, rules as to, 189, 190. 
Deg'ree of curves, explanation of meaning, 59. 

table for determining, 182. 

to reach any point, method for determining, 165. 
Disdiarg-ing" men, rules as to, 228, 234, 241. 
Discipline, rule as to, 228. 
Ditches, culverts, etc., 65. 

surface, 115. 
Ditching", rules for, 199, 207, 

specifications for, Pennsylvania R. R., 251. 
Divisions, length of, for supervisors, 233. 
Double joint, A. & G. W. R. R., 269. 
Drainagre, rules as to, 65. 
Dressing" off track after ballasting, 48. 
Dumping" g*ravel, carelessness in, 45. 

Elevating" outer rail on curves, rule as to, 201, 215, 250. 

tables for, 176, 182. 

" in France, 181. 

point of beginning, rule as to, 215. 

(See also Curves.) 
Employees, discharging, rule as to, 228, 241. 

giving wood to, rule as to, 231. 

should be discharged only for cause, 149. 
Eng"in3ering" department, distinction betv/een and trans, dep't, 150. 
Eng-ineers, mistake of discharging after construction, 147. 
Erie Railway, rail and joint section on, 265. 
Expansion of iron, 19. 

allowance for, rule as to, 213. ^ 

Expansion shims, rule as to, 2T3, 234. 

cut of, 159. 

(See also Shims ) 



280 INDEX, 

Fences, ii8. 

burnt, rule as to, 198. 
Fires along road-bed, 115. 

damages by, rule as to reports of, 227. 
Fisher joint, 269. 
FislL-plates, cuts of, 266, 271. 

maintenance of rule as to, 213. 

not strong enough for steel rail, 13. 
Force account, rule as to, 235. 
Foremen, length of section for, 152. 

rules for, 187, 217. 

should work with gang, 220. 
Fouling" switches, rule as to, 201. 
Foundations, examining, rules as to, 191. 
France, elevation f'^r curves used in, 181. 
French v/eig-hts an^ measures, 254. 
Freshets, 113, 120. 
Frog-s, 81. 

Brahn's, cuts of, 275. 

cast and rail, comparison of, 40. 

Cumming's, cut of, 272. 

curving, 85, 261. 

Mansfield, cut of, 272. 

method of measuring proportion of, 171. 

Morden's X-J^^il» cut of, 274. 

remarks as to setting', ■^'j. 

tables for setting, 38, 39. 

rule for placing, for cross-over track, 17:. 
Frog's and switches, bills of timber for, 182-185= 

maintenance of, rules as to, 205, 216. 

table for putting in, 243. 
Frost, effect of, on track, 74. 
"Gaug-e concussion,'' description of, 30. 
Gaug'e, importance of care as to, 29. 

widening, on curves, rule as to, 214, 
Qaug'es, tests of, rule as to, 2 r4. 
Grade-crossings, 134. 
Grass and weeds, cutting, rule as to, 198. 
Gravel should be dumped carefully, 45. 

Ground switch-lever stand, 267. 
Guard-rails, 87. 

position and length of, 40. 

brackets for, rule as to, 216. 
Guard-timber on bridges, 12. 
Hand-cars, light, economy from, 153, 

rules as to, 192. 



INDEX. 281 



Head-block, placing, rule as to, 216. 
Head-chair, malleable iron, 262, 
Higrhwayucrossing-s, 140. 

rules as to. 191. 
Hunting-ton track-gaug'e, remark as to, 15. 

cut of, 159. 
Ice and sno-w, 107. 
Injuries to trackmen, rules as to, 156. 
Inspection of track, rules as to, 198, 234. 

of wood, rule as to, 240. 
Inspector's track-g-aug-e and level combined, 159. 

Iron, expansion of, jg. 

shifting, 104. 

(See also Rails.) 
Jim Cro'w, 156, 160. 
Joints, 94. 

engravings of, 264 to 271. 

maintenance of, rule as to, 213. 

remarks on form of, 12. 

spiking of, 27, 214. 

engravings of, 264 to 271. 
Joint-ties, measuring off for, 8, 13. 

remarks as to size of, etc., 5. 

should be tamped last, 62. 
Joyce's track-jack, 156, 161. 
Keys for sv/itches, rule as to, 235. 
Kilometre, value of, 255. 
Lakey's track-drill, i6r, 
liatimer's safety-g-uard for trains, 270. 
Laying- rails, rule as to, 242. 

reports of, rule as to, 204. 

(See also Rails.) 
Leases and rig-ht of -way, special officer for, 151, 
Levels for track, 156, 158. 

importance of use of, 14. 

use of, on curves, 55. 

use of, rules as to, 204, 216. 
Lever and curving--liook for curving rails, 163. 
Lig-lit hand-cars, economy from, 153. 
Lig-ht rails, experience as to wear of, 92. 

section of, 263. 
Lining--bar, cut of, 159. 
Lining- track, 63. 
Litre, value of, 254. 
Live stock, damages to, T95. 
Long: ties should be used on bridges, 11. 



282 INDEX, 

liOOSe propei*ty, responsibility for, etc., rule as to, 221, 
Louisville & Nashville £. K., rail-section on, 264, 

rules for track men on, 207. 
liTimber, piling of, etc., rule as to, 219. 
Malleable iron head-chair, 263. 
Mansfield frogr, cut of, 272. 

remarks on, 81, 85. 
Material, piling of, etc., rule as to, 219, 240, 

receiving, rule as to, 240. 

requisitions for, etc., rule as to, 221. 

responsibility for, rule as to, 220. 
Metric systera, tables for, 254. 
Middle ordinates, 170. 

to chords of 50 feet, on various curves, 58. 
Morden's T-rail crossing*, cut of, 273. 

T-rail line frog, cut of, 274. 
Nut-locks, 95. 

Obstructions, placing of, etc.,. rule as to, 219. 
OflB.cers of road department, duties and numbers of, 15a. 
Old rail, disposition of, rule as to, 213. 
Old ties, uses for, 100. 
Org-anization, chapter on, 147. 

Oscillation of cars due in part to defective gauge, 29. 
Pennsylvania R. R., joint on, 271. 

rail- sections on, 264 and 265. 

specifications for perfect track, 2^9. 
Piling" "wood, etc., rules as to, 192. 

Pittsburg-h, Cincinnati & St. Louis R. R., cut of joint, 267. 
Platforms, care of, rule as to, 225. 
Plug'-chair to prevent creeping, 23. 
Plug's for spike-holes, 103. 

rules as to, 200, 205, 212. 
Policing", specifications for Pennsylvania R. R , 251. 
Presents, rule as to, 196. 
Punching", differences in, rule as to, 217. 
Radius of curves of various degrees, table of, 58. 
Railroad-crossing's, 134. 

Rails, creeping of, 23. 
curving, 18, 104. 

*' for turn-outs, 40. 

*' rule as to, 213. 
injury to, from running over before ballasting, 49, 
number of, per mile, of various lengths, 24. 
patched, directions as to laying, 21. 
pattern of, 91. 
pile for rolling, 93. 



INDEX. 2S3 



Hails, repairing, 102. 

rule for computing tonnage required, 25. 
sections of, 263 to 263. 

weight of, per sq. in of section, 25, 266, ^Gi. 
laying, making points of, rule as to, 205. 

*' on cattle-guards, open culverts, etc., 35. 

" rubs as to, 202, 204, 2x2. 

relaying, 105. 
replacing, rule as to, 197. 
shifting, 104. 

unloading, should be carefully done, 18. 
Kail-frog"3 to be preferred, 81. 
Rail-bsnder, 160. 

Rail-platss, on bridges, injury to, from spiking, 32, 
Ilail-sa\^, uses of, 102, 156. 
Rainfall, effect of, 112, 120. 
Raising- track, 46, 200. 
Ratchet screw-jack, 158. 
Ratchet wrench and drill, 160. 
Reinforced joint, Pennsylvania R. R., 271. 
Removals, rules as to, 1S7. 
Rene-wing" ties, 97. 
Repairs of track, 60. 
Reports, rules as to, 226. 

of new rail laid, rule as to, 242. 
Rsquisitions for material, rule as to, 221, 235. 
Responsibility for material, etc., rule as to, 220. 
Rig'ht of "way, care of, rule as to, 225. 
cultivating, rule as to, 198. 

specifications for care of, Pennsylvania R. R , 251, 
special officer for, 151. 
Road-crossing's, 140. 

laying rails at, 35. 
Road-bed, care of, in storms, 114, 120. 
cross-section of, 199. 
effect of freshets, etc , 113, 120. 
■preparation of, for ballast, rule for, 208. 
specifications for Pennsylvania R. R., 249, 
watching, etc., rule as to, 219. 
Road-master, length of division for, 152. 
rules as to duties of, 187, 237. 
various duties of, 153. 
Road-masters and superintendents, a word to, 142. 
Road department, rules for, 182. 
Rock-ballast, size for, etc., 208. 
Rules and tables, 162. 



•284 ■ INDEX. 

Kules for track department, 182,207. 
Running' off at switches, 130. 
Safety-g-uard for trains, Latimer's, 270. 
Scrap, piling of, etc., rule as to, 194, 220. 
Section, proper length of, 152. 
Section foremen, cuttings down wages of, 60. 

duties of, 62. 

rules for, 187, 207, 217. 

should work with their men, 153, 220. 
Semaphore sig-nals, 138, 260. 
Shanties, rules as to, 195, 198. 
Shifting" iron, 104. . 
Shimming', 74. 
^ , rule as to, 203. 

should be Carried on rail -car, 21. 

should not be used on bridges, etc., 10. 
Shims, expansion, 213. 

rule as to, 2T3, 234. 
Shim-box on rail-car, 21. 
Short g-uard-rails, 89. 
Siding's, care of, rule as to, 225. 

method for determining curve for, to reach a point, 165, 
Sight-boards for laying ties, 5, 13. 
Sig'nals, rules as to, 188, 190, 226. 

at crossings, 138. 

semaphore, cut of, 260. 
Smoking" on duty, rule as to, 198. 
Snow and ice, 107. 
Snow-ploug-hs, 108. 
Spacing* ties, rule as to, 203. 

Specifications for perfect track, Pennsylvania R. R., 249. 
Speed of trains, effect of, on elevation, 55. 

reports of, rule as to, 22?, 
Speed-recorder, 133. 
Spike-holes, plugs for, 103. 
Spike-maul, cut of, 159. 
Spiking" on bridges and trestles, 32. 

regulations as to, 205, 214. 
Spikes, 71. 

care and driving of, 26. 

drawing, to change rails, 103. 

preservation of, etc., rule as to, 220. 

wooden, rule as to, 200, 212. 
Split switches, rule as to, 197. 
Steel rail, laying, rule as to closures, 217. 

track, reduction of labor from, 152. . 



INDEX. 285 

Steel-rail frogr- crossing:, 261. 
Step-chairs, rules as to, 204, 216. 
Stock, damages to, rule as to reports of, 227. 
StonuS; care of road-bed in, 114. 

effect of, on track, 112, 120. 

work in, rules as to, 190. 
Stub-switch.es, 82. 
Sundays, work on, rules as to, 190, 192. 
Super-elevation of outer rail, rules as to, 215. 

tables for, 176, 1^2 . 

in France, 181 

(See also Curves ) 
Superintendents, a word to, 142. 

Superstructure, specifications for, Pennsylvania R. R., 249. 
Supervisors of track, rules for, 232. 
Surfacing", remarks as to, 52. 

Surfacing- old track for new iron, rule for, 202. 
Surface-ditches, 115. 
Suspension-joint, remarks as to, 12, 22. 

(See also Joints.) 
Switches, 82. 

accidents at, 130. 

bills of timber for, 182, 1S5, 243, 247. 

fouling, rule as to, 20-. 

malleable iron head-chair, 262. 

maintenance of, rule as to, 216. 

tables for laj'ing out, 38, 39, 743. 
Switch-keys, rule as to, 235. 
Switch-rods, protecting, by ties, 211. 
Switch-stands, 84, 267. 

cut of, 259. 
Switch timbers, bills of, 243, 247. 
Taniping:-bar, 159. 

Tamping" cross-ties when ballasting, 47. 
Tamping" joint-ties, 62, 
Tamping'-pick, weight of, etc., 155. 

cut of, 159. 
Target-boards for sighting-in ties. 5, 13. 
Teleg-raph, repairing, rules as to, 195. 

watching, rule as to, 225. 
Tie-rods for switches, remark as to, 41. 
Ties, adzing, ruls as to. 203. 

forprotecting switch-rods, rule as to, sir. 

lenewing, 97. 

sp-^cification for, etc.. 20. 

uses for old, loo. (See r.Iso Cross-ties.) 



286 INDEX. 

Time-bocks, etc, rules as to, 227, 233. 
Tongrue-SV^itches, table for putting in, 243, 
Tool account, rule as to, -z.-^^). 
Tool-lLOUses, 118. 
Tools for track-laying gang, list of, required, i6. 

for road gang, list of, required, 157. 

for track-men, remarks on, 155, 159. 
Track, dressing off, after ballasting, 48. 

lining of, 63. 

perfect, specifications for, Pennsylvania R R , 249. 

raising, for ballast, 46, 

repairs of, 60. 

watching, etc , rule as to, 219. 
Track dspartment, rules for, 182, 207. 
Track-drill, 160, 16 1. 
Track gaug-es and levels, 156. 
Track-g-auges, tests of, rule as to, 214. 
Track-jack, 156, i6i. 
Track-laying-, i. 

instructions for. 202. 

gang, organization of, 15, 
Track-level, 15S. 
Track-men, ru'es for. 182, 207. 
Track tools, 155. 19. 
Track-'w^lking', rule as to, 219. 
Track-"wrench, cut of, 159. 

Trestles, laying cross-ties on, 10. 

should have a foot-walk, 70. 

spiking on, 32 
Turn-outs, bills of timber for, 182, 185. 

laying out, 36. 

tables for laying out, 38, 39. 
Tyler switch, 83, 130, 

Unloading* rails should be carefully done, iS. 
Victor track-drill, i5i. 
Watcliing', rules as to, 217, 2?9. 
WeedSj cutting, rules as to, 198, 225. 
Weig'ht, French measures of, 258. 
"Widening* g-aiig-e on curves, rule as to, 214. 
"Wood, inspecting, rule as to, 240. 

piling, etc., rules as to, 192,^219. 
Wooden spikes, rule as to, 2c ^ 212. 
Wood-piles, tipping over by frcst, £0. 
Wood-yardo;, care of, ruh as to, 225. 
Work on track, rules as to, i?3, iSg. 207. 



ADVERTISEMENTS: 







INTERLOCKING SWITCH 



AND 



SIGKAL. SYSTEM. 



■4^ 



THE TOTJCEY & BFCHAM 

Interlocking Switch Co. 

Is prepared to furnish their new and original Interlocking 
Switch and Signal system, also that of the celebrated RAIL- 
WAY SIGNALING ENGINEERS, SAXBY & FARMER, 
which insures absolute certainty and precision in directing 
and controlling the most intricate movements of trains, and 
entire security against accidents. 

It reduces the number of switch and signalmen to a mini- 
mum, and the actual saving soon repays cost of erection. 

The numerous devices of the Toucey and Buchanan Com- 
pany, together with those of SAXBY & FARMER, are se- 
cured by letters-patent of undoubted validity, and all persons 
and companies are cautioned against making, vending, or 
using any signaling apparatus which is an infringement of the 
patents of either of the above-mentioned firms, and notice is 
hereby given that they will be held responsible for any such 
infringement. 

For further particulars ana full descriptions address 

O. H, JACKSON, Treas, & Manager, 

XIARIilSBURG) PA. 

Or 

J. M, TOUCEY, President, 

51 West Fifty-tliird Street, New York. 



THE 




OF 



FBIKADELPKIA, FEim., 

Manufacturers of all kinds of first-class 







P 




INCLUDING 



Wharton R. R. Switches, with both rails of main track 
unbroken, 

Wharton Pointed R. R. Switches, with two movable 
points. 

Yard Switches, and Switches for use in paved streets. 

Switch Stands, Signals, Targets, etc. 

Johnston Steel Rail Frogs & Crossings, with wrought 
iron wedges and clamping plates. 

All of our work is made with the greatest care, of first-class 
materials and workmanship. 

2®* There are more than five thousand Wharton R. R. 
Switches in actual use on railroads throughout the United 
States, 



WORKS: 
23d Street and Washington Avenue; 

OFFICE: 
No, 28 South Third Street, JPhUadelphia^ 



FISHER RAIL JOINT. 



END VIEW. 




34 FULL SIZE. 



The Single U t)olt long " Fisher '* Joint is appliea to 
every shape of rail heads, steel or iron. 

All kinds of **fish joints'* simply tie the two rail ends 
together, but in this joint a strong flanged beam spiked on 
two ties gives an additional support equal to any other part 
of the rail, and the heavy one-inch U bolt holds both ends 
firmly on this beam, so that no movement up or down of the 
ends or battering is possible, thus making the only practicable 
and durable continuous track yet obtained. 

The nuts do not work loose^ and having the whole width of 
the rail-base for a bearing, the wear is so slight that but little 
attention is required after these joints are once down. No 
** creeping'' of the track occurs, as the U bolt at each end of 
rail prevents it, and no slotting or punching of rail is re- 
quired except a small corner at each end of flange to permit 
this bolt to pass through. Fish-bars can never be kept tight, 
even with all the patent "washers** and other devices, be- 
cause the bolts being horizontal are continually subjected to 
cross strains by the vertical load, and the nuts either turn or 
wear loose in the thread. The bearing surface of the bars 
is so small that they wear hollowing, and after the first two 
or three years can never keep the joints so smooth as when 
new. The Fisher Joint can always be kept to its original 
fit, because the bolt draws in the same direction as the 
wear. It is in use for many years on many important roads. 

THE 

FISHER RAIL JOINT WORKS, 

TRENTON, N. J. 



ESTABLISHED 1848, 



WM. SELLERS & CO., 

PHILADELPHIA, 



MANUFACTURERS OF 



MACHINE TOOLS, 

Railway aM MacMiie Shop Epipents, 

laiPROTED 

CENTER-BEABING IBON TABLES, 

TEANra 7ASLES, f M SWSS, mW^, ETC. 

Injector Boiler Feeder, 

OPERATED BY ONE MOTION OF A LEVER. 

Branch Office^ 79 Liberty Street^ 



's^rjsr%7sr 



Prices, Photographs, Pamphlets, etc., sent to any ad- 
dress on Application. 



BALDWIN LOCOMOTIV E WORKS. 

Dimensions, Weights, and Tractive Power of Eoad LocomotiTes. 












Weight in 


Load in tons (of 224c lbs.) of C 


ars 


Class 


Gauge 
Track. 


Under 


Diameter 

of 
Drivers. 


Wk'g Order. 




and Lading. 


Designa- 
tion. 


On Dri- 
vers. 


Total 


On a 
Level 


On 
20 ft. 


a gra 
40 ft. 


deper 
60 ft. 


mile of 
80 ft. 100 


8-14 C 


3 or 3 ft. 6 in. 


1CX16 


40 to 44 in 


22,000 


33,000 


525 


245 


150 


105 


8q 6s 


8-I6C 




11x16 


" 


24,000 


36,000 


600 


280 


175 


125 


95 '75 


8-18 C 


" 


12x16 




27,000 


40,000 


665 


310 


195 


140 


105 85 


8— 20C 


" 


13x16 


" 


31,000 


45.000 


740 


340 


215 


155 


115 


90 


8— 18C 


4 ft. 8 1-2 or 5. 


12x22 s6 in. 


28,000 


44,000 


665 


310 


195 


140 


105 


85 


8— 20C 


" 


13x24 56 to 66 in 


32,000 


50,000 


740 


340 


215 


155 


115 


90 


8— 22C 




14x24 




35,000 


55,000 


83^ 


3B0 


240 


170 


125 


100 


8-24 C 




15x24 




39, coo 


60,000 


930 


430 


270 


190 


140 


110 


8-26 c 




16x24 




42,000 


65,000 


1000 


460 


290 


205 


150 


120 


8— 28C 


*• 


17x24 




46,000 


71,000 


1100 


52s 


318 


228 


169 


^35 


8-30 c 


" 


18x24 




50,000 


76,000 


1200 


575 


350 


283 


188 


150 




8— 16D 


3 or 3 ft. 6in. 


11x1636 to 40 in 


29,000 


35,000 


720 


.335 


210 


150 


110 


90 


8— 18D 


" 


I2xr6 


" 


33,000 


39,000 


840 


390 


250 


180 


135 


no 


8— 20D 


*' 


13x16 


" 


37,000 


44.000 


965 


445 


285 


205 


160 


12-; 


8— 22D 


<< 


14x16 


^ " 


41,000 


48,000 


1000 


470 


300 


215 


165 


130 


8-24 D 


<( , 


15x16 


<( 


46000 


53,000 


1 100 


525 


318 


228 


180 


145 


8— 26D 


4 ft. 8 1-2 or 5. 


16x24 48 to 54 in 


57,000 


66,000 


1400 


655 


415 


300 


230 


180 


8— 28D 


" 


17x24 


" 


62,000 


71,000 


1500 


695 


445 


320 


245 


105 


8—30 D 


" 


18x24 




66,000 


76,000 


1600 


740 


470 


340 


260 


205 


8—32 D 




19x24 




70,000 


80,000 


1695 


820 


500 


36S 


275 


220 




tubawcu^ ^ wemr.gim.* 



10—22 E ! 3 or 3 ft. 6 in. 

10— 24 E " 

10—34 E '4 ft. 8 1-2 or 5. 



14x16 

15x18 
20x24 



36 in. 
48 in. 



44,000 I 52,oooj 1060 
50,000 58,000 1200 
88,000 ii02,oool 2000 



490 


310 


^20 


'75 


140 


p6o 


3'^5 


255 


195 


155 


990 


635 


460 


350 


2H5 



iniioe^TmucmoE 

Any hook on Railroad or Engineering work will be 
sent on receipt of retail price. Address and make 
checks and orders payable to The Railroad Gazette, 
IS Broadwayj New York. 



The Railroad Oazette, Published weekly. The best 
railroad paper for every railroad man ; price, including post- 
age, $4 20 per year. 



BOOKS. 

Catechism of the I^ocomotiTe. By M. N. Forney, 625 
pages, 250 engravings ; price, $2.50. 

Eeonomie Theory of the Location of Railw^ays* 

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Roadmaster's Assistant and Section-Master's 

Guide. By Wm. S. Huntington and Charles Latimer ; 
price, $1 50. 

Railway Revenue and its Collection. By M. M. 

KiRKMAN ; price, $2 50, 

Railivay I>isharsenients, By M. M. Kirkman ; price 

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Investig^ation into the Cost of Passenger Traffic 

on American Railroads. By Albert Fink ; price 75 cents. 

Cost of Railroad Transportation. By Albert Fink ; 
price 75 cents. 

Railroad Employes in France. By F. Jacqmin ; 
price 25 cents. 

The Verrugas Tiaduct. By Ernest Pontzen ; price 
40 cents. 

English vs. American Rridges. Price 25 cents. 



MANNING TRACK DRILL, 

TO CLAMP OVER OR UNDER RAILS. 




?I5 

$5 



Price with either over or under rail clamp, 

FISH-JOINT WRENCH. 
Handle 20 inches long, ....... 

BRIDGE WRENCHES. 

No. I, 3 ft. Lever, i}{, 1% in. Sq. Nut, ij^, 1% Hex. Nut, 

No. 2, 3 •' i%,2 " 2, 2^,21^ 

No. 3, M " 2M. 2K " 2%, 3, 3M 

N0.4, 3J^" 2^.3, 3« " 3H,3M,4 

N0.5. 3K" 3j^,3M " 4M.4K 

The above prices cover only one gear for each wrench. 

EXTRA GEARS. 

No. I, §1. No. 2, §2, No. 3, $3. No. 4, $3.50. No. 5, §4. 

These Tools are made of steel and malleable iron, and parts 
are interchangeable. By reversing the pawl the ratchet or wrench 
can be worked to the right or left. These tools can be furnishecj 
by any supply house. Send for lists to 

H. S. Manning & Co., 1 1 1 Liberty St., N.Y., 

' Manufacturers and Dealers in Railroad Tools and Supplies, 



$9 

12 

i3 
24 



J. B. Schroder^ Pres. 



Thos. C. White, See. 



Williams Tool Company's 

PATENT COMBINATION 

Ratchet Wrench &. Drill, 



For Fishing Broken or New 
Bails without taking them out of 
the track, and allowing' trains to 
pass during progress of repairing* 

Boad Masters claim that with 
this Wrench one man can set the 
Nuts on Fish Bar Bolts as rapidly 
as six men can with any other 
Wrench, 

The Wrench is used with Clamp 
Brace, thus making a Batchet Drill 



that is readily applied, 
quickly adjusted, and ef- 
fectiye in execution. All 
Wrenches and Drills made 
of best steel and for any 
size nuts. Duplicate parts 
of tools furnished. 

Button B on Handle 
is used to rererse Bat 
chet. 




Office and Works^ 



Nos. 16 and 18 East Seventli Street, 

CINCINNATI, O. 

All sizes Ratchets, Wrenches and Drills made to order, 



An ounce of prevention is wortii a pound of cure. 




Latimer's Safety-Guard. 



The safety-guard is placed at each end of bridge, or at dan- 
gerous places, and, unlike guards generally, is for the pur- 
pose not only of protecting the bridge, but of bringing a de- 
railed train upon the track again the moment it is reached. 

It has been practically useful on the Chicago & Michigan 
Lake Shore Railroad, at St. Joseph, Michigan, in saving trains 
from going into the river. Also has been useful in saving a 
bridge on the Atlantic & Great- Western Railroad, and is also 
in use on the Louisville & Nashville and the Michigan Cen- 
tral Railroads. \ 

Chicago & Michigan Lake Shore Railroad, 
^"'--. . General Manager's Department, 

St. Joseph, Mich., Feb. 28, 1874. . 
C. Latimer, Esq. 

Dear Sir: The safety-guard which you placed at each end of the bridge 
across the St. Joseph River at this place has upon tv/o occasions saved our 
passenger-train from going into the river by bringing it back on to the track 
after it had been derailed, thus probably saving the drawbridge and the lives 
of passengers. 

On one occasion when an excursion train arrived at the north end of the 
bridge one of the coaches jumped the track. The pulling of the bell-cord 
confused the engineer so that he did not stop until tl^e train had passed over 
the safety-guard and was on the track all right. 

It is an invaluable improvement to prevent accidents, and especially when a 
bridge is approached by a curve, as is the case with both ends of the bridge at 
St. Joseph. Yours truly, 

A. H. MORRISON, General Manager. 

Address 

CHARLES LATIMER, Cleveland, Ohio. 



METCALF, PAUL & CO. 

MAKE A SPECIALTY OF 

SOLID STEEL 

RAILROAD TRACK TOOLS 




ALSO, SOLE MANUFACTURERS OF 

THE PATENT 

YEEONA KUT LOCK. 

Send^forouf* New Catalogue, 

331 PENN AVE., PITTSBUEG. 

BRANCH OFFICES : 
38 Dearborn Street ^ Chicago; 720 North Second 
Street, St. Louis. 



THE PATENT 



VERONA NUT LOCK, 



MANUFACTURED ONLY AT 



PATENTED: 
April 28, 1868. March ax, 1875. ^ 




Pittsburg, Penn. 



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Deacidified using the Bookkeeper pr 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxid 
Treatment Date: April 2004 

PreservationTechnolo 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERV 

1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township. PA 16061 



